Religion and Politics in Japan1. Brief Introduction 1. Brief Introduction to Religion and Politics in Japan Japan’s population is nearly 126.5 million, with a population growth rate of -0.28% (July 2011 est). The country is highly developed with a #11 2011 HDI rank and a 7.8 2011 CPI rating. Ethnic Japanese make up 98.5% of the population with the remainder immigrants. The largest number of immigrants are Korean, Chinese, Brazilian, and Filipino. The CIA report states that 83.9% of the Japanese observe Shinto, 71.4% Buddhism, 2% Christian, 7.8% other (This list exceeds 100% because many Japanese observe both Shinto and Buddhism. Reischauer has discussed the ways that neo-Confucianism, Buddhism, the new religions, and Christianity still influence Japanese society. Soka Gakkai, which emerged out of Nichiren Buddhism, formed the Komeito, then New Komeito parties, but has had difficulty in articulating the meaning of “Buddhist politics.” Despite the above influences, however, Japan is one of the most secular of the world’s countries in terms of religious participation. Toyoda and Tanaka (below) state that only 25% of Japanese consider themselves religious and only four percent regularly visit a shrine, temple, or church. Japan is a parliamentary democracy. The Liberal Democratic Party ran the government with a majority in the lower house from the party’s formation in 1955 until it first lost control of the government for eleven months. The LDP then led the coalition governments that followed. In September 2005 Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi led the LDP to a great “reform” victory that reestablished its majority position. Koizumi was followed by Abe in September 2006, and Fukuda in September 2007, and Aso in September 2008. In August 30, 2009 parliamentary election, the opposition Democratic Party of Japan scored an historical landslide victory, garnering 308 of the 480 seats. The postwar Japanese economy was one of the world’s great success stories until the stagnation of the 1990s. Finally, in March 2006, the Bank of Japan declared an end to this longterm financial malaise. However, strong growth has not returned. Japan remains the world’s third largest economy, even if economies like China and India are growing much faster. Japan has a very advanced communication system, but an establishment approach to the gathering of news, with a “club system” for newspapers and a large role for establishment television like the government-sponsored NHK. Japan’s “Peace Constitution” ruled against war and armed forces. In reality, Japan has constantly tested the boundary of what it might do within the constraints of Japanese public opinion. Japan has the world’s second largest defense budget and remains a “virtual” nuclear power, meaning that it has the technology to move quickly in that direction if it wishes. The nation’s major ideological issue concerns the degree to which Japan should again embrace conservative nationalism. The nationalization of the content of Japanese textbooks and the visits of the prime ministers to the Yasukuni Shrine dedicated to World War II dead alarm other Asian capitals. Both the Buddhist New Komeito political party and the Catholic Bishops of Japan have criticized the visits of the prime ministers to Yasukuni. Chinese and Korean leaders refused to meet with Koizumi as long as he visited Yasukuni, and the possibility for nationalist clash with China was seen in the Shanghai riots of April 2005. The next prime minister Abe, however, unexpectedly moved to meet some of the concerns of his neighbors. However, Abe's focus on foreign affairs and domestic patriotism, plus the loss of traditional public works projects, made him very unpopular with traditional rural LDP voters. The LDP lost control of the upper house for the first time, and Abe resigned. The DPJ won a great victory in the House of Representatives (308 of 480 seats) election of July 2009. Prime Minister Yukio Hatoyama emphasized Japan's place in Asia, but stumbled in implementing his domestic and foreign policy objectives. He also suffered a financial scandal in December, and resigned in June 2010. Naoto Kan replaced him, but has had to promise to resign (June 2011) in the wake of the government's inept handling of the March 2011 earthquake, tsunami, and nuclear crisis. Hanson (2006) discusses “China and Japan: Confucianism, Buddhism, and Maoism” (pp. 111-19); “Japanese Secularism and Politics within the Economic and Military Systems” (pp. 177-82); and “The Future of East Asia in the EMC Systems” (pp. 188-97). 2. A Short Introductory Course to Religion and Politics in Japan Reischauer provides a very readable introduction into Japanese history, society, and politics. Murakami interviewed many from the radical Aum Shinrikyo sect that made the bizarre attack on the Tokyo subway. Toyoda and Tanaka present a fine summary of religion and politics in the country. Metraux discusses the development of Soka Gakkai, and Victoria the debacle of Zen collaboration with early-twentieth-century Japanese imperialism. Nelsen helps the reader understand the role of Shintoism in Japanese society. Reischauer, Edwin O. The Japanese Today: Change and Continuity (Cambridge: Belnap, 1988). Murakami, Haruki. Underground: The Tokyo Gas Attack and the Japanese Psyche (New York: Vintage Books, 2000). Toyoda, Maria A., and Tanaka, Aiji, “Religion and Politics in Japan,” in Jelen, Ted Gerard, and Wilcox, Clyde. Religion in the Comparative Perspective: The One, the Few, and the Many (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 269-88. Metraux, Daniel A., “The Soka Gakkai: Buddhism and the Creation of a Harmonious and Peaceful Society,”in Queen, Christopher S., and King, Sallie B., eds. Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia (Albany, NY: SUNY, 1996), 365-400. Victoria, Brian. Zen At War. (Tokyo: Weatherhill, 1997). Soto monk Victoria employs this and the following book to document the collaboration of Zen Buddhism with Japanese imperialism in the first half of the twentieth century. Nelsen, John K. Enduring Identities: The Guise of Shintoism in Comtemporary Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2000). 3. Other Key Resource Materials for Religion and Politics in Japan See January-February Asian Survey for annual summaries of Japanese politics. For Shinto, see BBC religion website. For public opinion, see AsiaBarometer. Alldritt, Leslie D., “Buddhism and the burukamin: Oppression or liberation?” in Queen, Christopher, Prebish, Charles, and Keown, Damien. Action Dharma: New Studies in Engaged Buddhism (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003). Baker, Don, “World Religions and National States: Competing Claims in East Asia,” Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber, and Piscatori, James, Transnational Religion and Fading States. Boulder, Co.: Westview Press, 1997, 144-72. Kapleau, Philip. The Three Pillars of Zen: Teaching, Practice, and Englightenment. New York: Harper & Row, 1966. Great introduction to Zen practice. Merton, Thomas. Zen and the Birds of Appetite. New York: New Directions, 1968. Zen practice from the perspective of a Catholic monk. Nelsen, John K. A Year in the Life of a Shinto Shrine (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996). Victoria, Brian [Daizen]. Zen War Stories. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003. More material on the Zen connection with imperial policy. 4. Recent Articles on Japan (a. General Politics; b. Politics and Economics; c. Religion and Ideology; d. Foreign Policy): a. General Politics “Japanese prime minister scores landslide in voting,” San Jose Mercury News, September 12, 2005. The LDP wins 296 of 480 seats, enabling it to govern without a coalition for the first time in 15 years. “Ugly Images of Asian Rivals Become Best Sellers in Japan,” New York Times, November 19, 2005. Japanese comics denigrate Chinese and Koreans. “Japan’s ruling party proposes relaxing pacifist constitution,” San Jose Mercury News, November 23, 2005. “Japan’s Likely Next Premier in Hawkish Stand,” New York Times, September 2, 2006. Shinzo Abe calls for revision of anti-war constitution. Abe, 51 year-old likely new prime minister, had made name on nationalist stands. "Japan's Leader Attacked by His Own Party," New York Times, July 26, 2007. LDP candidates for upper house runing against Prime Minister Abe because of his deep unpopularity due to ignoring economic situation. LDP then loses upper house for first time, then Abe reshuffles cabinet, but eventually is forced to resign. "Veteran Lawmaker Chosen as Japan's Prime Minister," New York Times, September 24, 2007. Traditional politician Yasuo Fukuda receives backing of eight of nine faction leaders for party's head. He will be installed as prime minister on the next Tuesday. He has stressed good relations with the rest of Asia and says he has no intension of visiting the Yasukuni Shrine. "The Power of Japan: Does it lie in miltary strength or in its unique witness for peace?" America, October 22, 2007. Article by Karen Sue Smith beginning from March 2007 talk at Georgetown University by Nagasaki Archbishop Joseph M. Takami, who was in his mother's womb when the atomic explosion occurred. Since the end of the Cold War, three unlikely, and conflicting, streams have endured: nuclear pacifism; substantial growth of Self Defense Forces; and increase of U.S. weapons and troops on Japanese soil. "'Sense of crisis' for Japan's economy," San Jose Mercury News, February 3, 2008. Minister of Economic and Fiscal Policy Hiroko Ota told parliament that Japan no longer has a "first class" economy, because, while it remains a remarkably comfortable middle-class country, the nation has not nurtured industries which will grow in the future. Although it still has the world's second largest economy, China has passed it in purchasing power, and Japan's population is shrinking. "Japanese Prime Minister Resigns Unexpectedly," New York Times, September 2, 2008. Fukuda resigns showing weakness of LDP and of Japanese system in general. Ozawa reelected head of Democratic Party, which controls upper house. "Japan Gets New Prime Minister, Veteran of the Governing Party," New York Times, September 25, 2008. Background of Taro Aso and his cabinet. Will he call election earlier than mandated September 2009 to take advantage of "electoral bounce" of new government? LDP has been weakened, and opposition Democratic Party controls the upper house. "Japan's Premier and Long-Running Party Find They're in a Precarious Position," New York Times, February 20, 2009. Fine summary of what's wrong with Aso and the LDP. "Eroding Rural Base Threatens to Topple Japanese Party's Long Rule," New York Times, August 6, 2009. LDP troubles in rural areas, with construction industry, and with youth. A new politics, with more emphasis on media campaigns over machine politics, seems to be emerging. "A New Path for Japan," op-ed by soon to be prime minister Yukio Hatoyama, New York Times, August 27, 2009. Hatoyama calls for an emphasis on fraternity and other non-economic values versus unrestrained market fundamentalism, and for more emphasis on Japan's place in the East Asian Community. "With Bold Stand, Japan Opposition Wins a Landslide," New York Times, August 31, 2009. Coverage of Democratic Party of Japan's historic victory. Seen more as rejection of incumbants and pursuit of change rather than endorsement of specific policies. "Japan's Governing Party Suffers Sharp Setback in Elections," New York Times, July 12, 2010. DPJ does not do well in upper house elections, falling short of majority (109 of 242 seats, with LDP at 83). Prime Minister Kan's approval ratings sank quickly on proposal for tax increase just before elections, and then waffling about it. "Japan's Prime Minister Hangs On, Surviving Vote to Oust Him," New York Times, June 3, 2011. Naoto Kan survives no-confidence vote, but has to promise to leave office as soon as he finishes dealing with crisis. "In Nuclear Crisis, Crippling Mistrust," New York Times, June 13, 2011. Fine article detaining mistrust between PM and bureaucrats, and its effect on crisis. b. Politics and Economics “Japan’s Central Bank Declares An End to the Economic Blahs,” New York Times, March 10, 2006. B.O.J. declares end of lush monetary policy adopted five years ago to resuscitate economy. States financial crisis of more than a decade is over. "In Japan, Stagnation Wins Again," op-ed in New York Times, September 18, 2007. Critique of government economic policy by Joicho Ito, VC chief executive, for overreliance on Chinese demand for raw materials and domestic construction. "'Sense of crisis' for Japan's economy," San Jose Mercury News, February 3, 2008. Minister of Economic and Fiscal Policy Hiroko Ota told parliament that Japan no longer has a "first class" economy, because, while it remains a remarkably comfortable middle-class country, the nation has not nurtured industries which will grow in the future. Although it still has the world's second largest economy, China has passed it in purchasing power, and Japan's population is shrinking. "Japan's Economy Grows, Hitting a Potential Turning Point," New York Times, August 17, 2009. Japanese economy grows .9% in second quarter after 14.2% drop in first quarter in conjunction with world economic downturn. Is this a critical turning point for Japan, or more of the same, in this second "lost decade" for the world's second largest economy? "Japan Goes From Dynamic to Disheartened," New York Times, October 17, 2010. Fine summary article on the stagnation of the Japanese economy since 1980s. Does it have a lesson for other countries? c. Religion and Ideology “Japan stirs anger with shrine visit,” San Jose Mercury News, October 18, 2005. South Korea and China criticize the visit. “Japan bishops protest prime minister’s visit to Yasukuni Shrine,” Asia Focus, October 28, 2005. Catholic bishops protest. “Japan’s Conservatives Push Prewar ‘Virtues’ in Schools, New York Times, June 11, 2006. Tokyo ward, abetted by rightist governor Shintaro Ishihara, adopts conservative posture in education. Part of struggle preceding revision of the 1947 Fundamental Law of Education. “A Shrine to Japan’s Tainted Past,” op-ed by Gary J. Bass, New York Times, August 5, 2006. Fine explanation of meaning of shrine and reasons for not visiting. “Koizumi Exits Office as He Arrived: Defiant on War Shrine,” New York Times, August 16, 2006. Koizumi goes for the first time on August 15, and holds press conference to defend action against China and Korea. "Dawning in Japan: Patriotism," San Jose Mercury News, December 16, 2006. New laws to encourage patriotism in school. "Shrine in Japan To Its War Dead Plans to 'Soften' Section on China," New York Times, December 21, 2006. Anti-Chinese explanations to be softened. "On Japan's Catholic Outposts, Faith Abides Even as Churches Dwindle," New York Times, April 6, 2008. Current situation on Goto Archipelago where Catholicism survived the Tokugawa. See the novel Silence. "In Japan, Buddhism, Long the Religion of Funerals, May Itself Be Dying Out," New York Times, July 14, 2008. Changes in Japanese society and in funeral practices weaken Buddhism. "Jesus was a grand Zen master," Asia Focus, August 22, 2008. Interview with Korean-American priest, Kim Alfonso Hak-boum, who has been studying Zen in Japan since the mid-1990s. He remains a Catholic priest, but is an honorary Zen master, recognized by Hwalan, a Korean master. "God's Home Gets Rehab, And Japan Sneaks Peek," New York Times, August 27, 2008. Renewal of Izumo Taisha, one of Japan's oldest Shinto shrines. "Japan's Cabinet Shuns Shrine on Anniversary of War's End," New York Times, August 16, 2010. For first time since 1980 no member of the cabinet visited the Yasukuni Shrine. The Democratic Party has taken a less nationalist stance than the Liberal Democrats as it seeks to improve relations with China and Korea. "A New Wave of Dissent in Japan Is Openly and Loudly Anti-Foreign," New York Times, August 29, 2010. The Net Far Right protest against foreigners, especially Koreans. Mostly low-paid younger men with a sense of Japan's decline, called together by Internet for confrontational, but so far not violent, protests. Traditional far right calls them amateurish rabble-rousers. d. Foreign Policy “Race to Lead Japan May Turn on Asia Ties,” New York Times, June 4, 2006. Yasukuni visits as central issue in battle between Abe and Fukuda to succeed Koizumi. Buddhist New Komeito, LDP coalition partner, and Japanese Association of Corporate Executives oppose. “Missile Tests Divide Seoul From Tokyo,” New York Times, July 11, 2006. Very different perspectives on North Korean test firing. “In First Month as Japan’s Premier, Abe Veers to Center,” New York Times, October 28, 2006. Abe immediately visited China and South Korea, assuaging the concerns of U.S. and other diplomats at his prior nationalistic statements. "Japan Court Rules Against Sex Slaves and Laborers," New York Times, April 28, 2007. The Supreme Court acknowledged Japanese military coercion, but ruled that the Sino-Japanese Treaty of 1972, in which Beijing renounced war reparations, cleared Japan of responsibility for individual claims. However, acknowledgment of the facts attacked nationalist politicians. Chinese government attacked ruling. "In His Visit to Japan, China Leader Seeks Amity," New York Times, May 8, 2008. Both countries seek improved relations in meeting between Prime Minister Fukuda and Hu Jintao. Japan praises Chinese decision to meet with representatives of the Dalai Lama. August 10, 2011. |
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