Religion and Politics in NigeriaSee also Sub-Saharan Africa. 1. Brief Introduction 1. Brief Introduction to Religion and Politics in Nigeria Nigeria has a population of over 155 million (roughly one in six Africans) with a population growth rate of 1.94% (July 2011 est). Nigeria had a 2010 HDI ranking of #142 and a 2010 CPI ranking of 2.4, an improvement over its recent extraordinarily corrupt ratings. The CIA Factbook lists Nigeria as 50% Muslim, 40% Christian, and 10% indigenous beliefs. Paden (below, p. 10) states that "The intensity of religious identity in Nigeria is regarded as one of the highest in the world." Major global powers pay even more attention to the country’s oil and natural gas reserves. Relations between Muslims and Christians exhibit some tension, as indicated, for example, by recent articles below. The relationships of religion to national politics remain extraordinarily complex, with the country divided regionally, ethnically, and religiously. The Igbo people make up 18% of the population, live in the eastern region, and are predominantly Christian. The Yoruba people comprise 21% of the population, live in the southwestern region, and are half Muslim and half Christian. The Hausa-Fulani account for 29% of the population, live in the north, and practice Islam. The British colonization of Nigeria both ended the dominance of the Islamic Sokoto Empire and legitimized Muslim cultural, religious, and governance systems. British support for preexisting Islamic leadership, educational, and judicial systems thus created a unified, if less economically developed, northern Islamic political bloc. Muslim traders (wangawara) had first brought Islam to northern Nigerian urban centers in the tenth and eleventh centuries. In the middle of the eighteenth century, Muslim missionaries began to convert the rural and common people to their blend of traditional tribal practices and Qur’an-based teachings. But Sunni purists saw this blend as “impure,” and between 1804-12, the jihad of the Fulani cleric, Shehu Usman dan Fodio, replaced Hausa leaders with a new caliphate. This Sokoto Empire controlled northern Nigeria until 1903 when the British invaded and joined these northern lands to Bornu lands on the southern border. The British then protected Muslim areas from Christian missionaries since they believed the latter would destabilize colonial rule. In the predominantly-Christian and indigenous south, however, British administrators developed a more specifically Western political system. Christianity, modernization, and Westernization eventually formed a competing cultural blend. Nigeria contains both zones, so religion is often intertwined with regional (three northern and three southern regions) and federal-state (36 states) issues. An elite consensus that all regions and all states must be considered politically and economically, e.g., in distributing southern oil revenues to all states, holds the country together. In the most recent 2007 presidential elections, all three major parties nominated a northern Muslim for president and a southern Christian for vice-president. When the southern Christian president unsuccessfully sought to change the consitution so he could serve a third term, it caused great tension within the system. Local Christian-Muslim clashes, therefore, often embody national political, ethnic, regional, and economic tensions despite the fact that there are no religious or ethnic parties, and neither religious nor ethnic questions are allowed on the national census. National interfaith dialogue takes place between the establishment national religious organizations, the Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) and the Nigerian Supreme Council of Islamic Affairs (NSCIA). The Sultan of Sokoto, since March 2007 Alhaji Muhanmmad Sa'ad Abubakar, is the formal head of Nigeria's Muslims. The National Interreligious Council (NIREC), which consists of twenty-five Muslim and twenty-five Christian leaders, was revived in fall 2007, partly through the influence of the new sultan, who serves as co-chair, along with the president of CAN. After independence, the Muslim north dominated politics. Even in the north, however, Muslim leaders split into the Northern People’s Congress (NPC), backed by Qadiriyya Sufi sect, and the Northern Elements Progressive Party Union (NEPU), backed by the more popular Tijaniyya. The Constitution divided the country into three regions: Northern, Western, and Eastern. Muslims became the Federal, Northern, and Western Prime Ministers. In January 1966 these three officials were assassinated in a military coup led by Igbo army officers, who subdivided the country into much smaller states. The Igbo then tried to form a separate country of Biafra, but were defeated. Nigeria was under military rule from 1966 to 1999, except for the second republic (1979-83). When democracy returned in the Fourth Republic in 1999, a southern Christian general, Olusegun Obansanjo, won the presidency with support from northern Muslim politicians and Muslim fellow generals. Since that time, the Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) has maintained national control, with the All Nigeria Peoples Party (ANPP) the principal opposition. The ethnopolitics of multi-religious coalitions still appeals to such traditional power brokers. Middle-class and upper-class supporters of Islamic law, however, see shari‘a as a tool against corruption, Westernized political forms, and modernized economic systems which they blame for the terrible state of the country. The chief spokesman for this theopolitical movement is Sheikh Abubakar Gumi, leader of Izala, the Association for the Elimination of Innovations in the Religion and for Reinforcement of the Sunnah. Izala rejects traditional Sufism, literal interpretation of the Qur’an, and the Qadiriyya and Tijaniyya. Izala’s two million followers are mostly urban and young. In April 2007, northern governor Umara Yar'Adua, from a family with strong connections to the outgoing president, was elected in an election called less fair than the two previous elections but Yar'Adua received more legitimacy through his modest actions and traditional leader support. He became very ill in fall 2009 and went to Saudi Arabia for treatment, so that Vice-President Goodluck Jonathan became Acting President in February 2010 and succeeded to the office on May 5. Mr. Jonathan, who has a doctorate in zoology, is an unlikely politician (see February 2010 article below), but he has started off attacking corruption. Federal civilian leadership must always cope with 36 powerful state governors, a large military establishment, and regional issues (the southerner Jonathan becomes president in a "northern period"). In the April 2011 presidential election, Jonathan defeated the northern Muslim candidate Buhari, 57 to 31 percent. Hanson (2006) discusses Ellis and ter Haar: African spirit world; Berkeley: Nigerian urban “kinship corporations” (pp. 48-50); and atholic bishops protest Nigeria in Organization of the Islamic Conference (p. 53). 2 A Short Introductory Course to Religion and Politics in Nigeria Start with Paden's recent summary of the politics of Nigeria and the role of Islam, especially Chapters One and Two. Uzoma describes the general orientation in the country. Laremont and Hrach discuss political Islam in the region. Loimeier focuses on the Izala Movement. Sampson narrates the Quaker conciliation following the end of the Biafran Civil War (1967-70). Griswold's chapter on Nigeria offers a fine recent summary of religion and politics in the country. Paden, John N. Faith and Politics in Nigeria: Nigeria as a Pivotal State in the Muslim World (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2008). Uzoma, Rose C., “Religious Pluralism, Cultural Differences, and Social Stability in Nigeria,” Brigham Young University Law Review (Summer 2004): 651-64. Laremont, Ricardo, and Hrach, Gregorian, “Political Islam in West Africa and the Sahel,” Military Review (Jan.-Feb. 2006): 27-36. Loimeier, Roman, “Islamic Reform and Political Change: The Example of Abubakar Gumi and the Yan Izala Movement in Northern Nigeria,” in Westerlund, David, and Rosander, Eva Evers, eds. African Islam and Islam in Africa: Encounters Sufis and Islamists (Athens, Oh.: Ohio University Press), 286-307. Sampson, Cynthia, “’To Make Real the Bond Between Us All’: Quaker Conciliation During the Nigerian Civil War,” in Johnston, Douglas, and Sampson, Cynthia, eds. Religion, The Missing Dimension of Statecraft (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 88-118. Griswold, Eliza. The Tenth Parallel: Dispatches From the Fault Line Between Christianity and Islam (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010), pp. 17-74. 3. Other Key Resource Materials for Religion and Politics in Nigeria Albright, Madeleine, The Mighty and the Almighty: Reflections on America, God, and World Affairs (New York: HarperCollins, 2006), 259-64. Appiah-Kubi, Kofi. African Theology En Route (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1979). Bediako, Kwame. Jesus and the Gospel in Africa: History and Experience (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2004). Berkeley, Bill. The Graves Are Not Yet Full: Race, Tribe and Power in the Heart of Africa (New York: Basic Books, 2002). This book has chapters on Liberia, U.S. Assistant Secretary Crocker, the Congo, South Africa, Sudan, and Rwanda. Ellis, Stephen, and ter Haar, Gerrie. Worlds of Power: Religious Thought and Political Practice in Africa (New York: Oxford, 2004). Igawara, Obi, “Dominance and Difference: Rival Visions of Ethnicity in Nigeria,” Ethnic and Racial Studies (2001) 24(1): 86-103. Jega, Attahiru, ed. Identity Transformation and Identity Politics under Structural Adjustment in Nigeria (Stockholm: Elanders Gotab, 2000). This Nordic-Nigerian collection describes the transformation of Nigerian political identities during structural adjustment. Jenkins, Philip. The New Faces of Christianity: Believing the bible in the Global South (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006). Jenkins, Philip. The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002). Kilani, Abdul Razaq, “Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations in Niger-Delta,” Journal of Muslim Affairs (2000) 20(1): 129-36. Miles, William F.S., “Muslim Ethnopolitics and Presidential Elections in Nigeria,” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs (2000) 20(2): 229-41. Sanneh, Lamin. Whose Religion is Christianity? The Gospel beyond the West (Grand Rapids, Mi.: Eerdmans, 2003). Sannah, Lamin, and Carpenter, Joel A., eds. The Changing Face of Christianity: Africa, the West, and the World (New York: Oxford, 2005). Sanneh, Lamin. “Why is Christianity, the Religion of the Colonizer, Growing so Fast in Africa?” Santa Clara Lecture, Santa Clara University, May 11, 2005. 4. Recent Articles on Nigeria (a. Politics; b. Religion and Politics; c. Religion and Society; d. Political Economy; e. Foreign Polity and Security): a. Politics “Nigeria’s Press Bounces Back From Military Rule,” New York Times, February 21, 2001. Handover to civilian rule of President Olusegun Obansanjo in May 1999 has resulted in five new newspapers joining 15 preexisting in last year. Many editors scarred from military beatings, etc. “Nigerian President Declared Winner Amid Cries of Fraud,” New York Times, April 23, 2003, and “Nigerian President Defends Integrity of Elections,” April 25, 2003. Election results and comments by election monitors. “A Country and a Continent, Hanging in the Balance,” New York Times, January 23, 2006. The current great risks in Nigerian politics. "Nigerian Party Selects Its Presidential Candidate," New York Times, December 18, 2006. Background of northern governor and Muslim Umaru Yar'Adua and family and army connections to the Christian Obasanjo. "Millions Vote in Nigeria, but Intimidation Is Widespread," New York Times, April 15, 2007. Fraud in state and local elections. The ruling People's Democratic Party, led by President Obasanjo, did very well. "Governing Party Wins in Nigeria, but Many Claim Fraud," New York Times, April 24, 2007. Umaru Yar'Adua of People's Democratic Party wins, but many irregularities. "Democracy in Nigeria Falters but Is Far From Dead," New York Times, May 3, 2007. Election analysis by Lydia Poplgreen from Lagos. "A First in Nigeria, a Peaceful Succession of Power," New York Times, May 30, 2007. Inauguration of Yar'Adua. "After Rocky Election, Nigerians Warm to New Leader," New York Times, October 4, 2007. Contrast of Yar'Adua's "servant leader" style with former president. Attack on corruption, especially in petroleum industry. Vice-president Goodluck Jonathan comes from Ijaw tribe, which helps in Niger Delta. "An Accidental Leader Stirs Hopes in Nigeria," New York Times, February 20, 2010. Unlikely background of Goodluck Jonathan. "Nigeria's Presidential Vote Unfolds With Few Signs of Past Troubles," New York Times, April 17, 2011. Analysis of parliamentary (April 9) and presidential (April 17) voting. The National Assembly has 109 Senators and 360 Representatives. "Election Fuels Deadly Clashes in Nigeria," New York Times, April 25, 2011. Election of southern Christian Goodluck Jonathan and violent protests in north. b. Religion and Politics “New Strife Tests Nigeria’s Fragile Democracy,” New York Times, March 15, 2000. Religious strife in Kaduna over Islamic law. Nigeria's northern 12 states adopted sharia, beginning in 2000. There are two models, which Paden identifies with Zamfara and Kano states, both run by the ANPP. “Winds of Militant Islam Disrupt Fragile Frontiers,” New York Times, February 2, 2001. “Fiery Zealotry Leaves Nigeria in Ashes Again,” New York Times, November 29, 2002. Rioting in Kaduna in wake of Miss World Beauty Pageant, which was then moved from Abuja to London. “As Stoning Case Proceeds, Nigeria Stands Trial,” New York Times, January 26, 2003. Case of stoning for adultery in Katsina. “Nigeria Counts 100 Deaths Over Danish Caricatures,” New York Times, February 24, 2006. Rioting and killing following publication. "In Nigeria, Christians and Muslims in uneasy calm," John L. Allen in National Catholic Reporter, March 9, 2007. Story of Christian-Muslim dialogue in Kaduna, where clashed between predominantly Muslim Fulani and mostly Christian Taroh between September 2001 and May 2004 are estimated to have cost 1,800 lives and 160,000 cattle. "Nigerian Bishops Criticize Election Irregularities," America (May 7, 2007). Statement of April 24 based on observations of 30,000 election monitors from church's Justice and Peace Commission. "The reports from across the country showed that the mandate of the people was abused, traumatized and brutalized." "Nigeria Turns From Harsher Side of Islamic Law," New York Times, December 1, 2007. Implementation of more humane Islam in the north. Interfaith contacts, sponsored by the government, between Muslims and Christians. U.N.-sponsored schools for girls which combine traditional Islamic education with math and reading. "Counting the Bodies in the Aftermath of the Christian-Muslim Clashes in Nigeria," New York Times, December 8, 2008. At least four hundred people were killed in rioting between Christian and Muslim gangs in Jos, November 28-29, when both sides feared that a local election would be stolen by the other side. Christiians supported the ruling PDP, and Muslims the principal opposition ANPP in this middle-belt state of Plateau. See also the New York Times, December 1 and 21 ("Nigerian Forces Are Implicated In the Killings of Muslims"). "Nigerian Forces Attack Compound of Islamic Militants," New York Times, July 30, 2009. The Nigerian army attacked the Maiduguri compound of the Islamist sect Boko Harum, whose name comes from the Hausa for "Western education is prohibited." The leader Mohammed Jusuf and many others were killed. See also July 28 and 31. "A palpable hunger for democracy," National Catholic Reporter, March 18, 2011. Interview with Msgr. Obiora Ike, director of Catholic Insitute for Development, Peace, Justice and Caritas in Enugu. "The Niger Delta's 'cry of anguish'," National Catholic Reporter, April 1, 2011. Meeting of region's Catholic bishops with local government officials, other NGOs, and Shell Oil Company to help the delta's population. c. Religion and Society “Step Aside, L.A. and Bombay, for Nollywood,” New York Times, September 16, 2002. Successful niche film industry in Nigeria. “Nigerian Anglicans Seeing Gay Challenge to Orthodoxy,” New York Times, December 18, 2005. Archbishop Peter J. Akinola of Nigerian Anglican Church and “the global south” versus Changing Attitudes Nigeria. d. Political Economy “Strangers in the Dazzling Night: A Mix of Oil and Misery,” New York Times, December 9, 2005. Natural gas flares and pollution must be fixed in Niger Delta. "Nigeria's relentless poverty steals democracy's promise," San Jose Mercury News, April 21, 2007. Economic decline in Kano tied to current politics. e. Foreign Policy
Credit: Senior papers by Jennifer Vollman and Julia Eisen-Meyers in fall 2007. Mistakes in interpretation remain the responsibility of the website’s author. August 10, 2011. |
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