Religion and Politics in Russia and BelarusSee also Eastern Europe, Orthodoxy. 1. Brief Introduction 1. Brief Introduction to Religion and Politics in Russia and Belarus Russia has a population of 138.7 million, with a growth rate of -0.47% (July 2011 est). Russia had a 2010 HDI ranking of #65 and a low 2010 CPI ranking of 2.1. The CIA Factbook lists Russia (est. 2006) as 15-20% Russian Orthodox, 10-15% Muslims, and 2% other Christians. It also states that “Russian has large populations of non-practicing believers and non-believers, the legacy of the Soviets.” Linzey and Krotov list state survey figures for 1993-97 for Orthodox as 50, 56, 44, 48 percent, but the non-believers may be “culturally Orthodox.” Another recent (2007) survey showed two-thirds of Russians identifying as Orthodox, but most said they never attend church. It is not easy to get good figures since the Patriarchate has at times claimed that 90% of non-Muslim Russians are Orthodox and opposes religious questions on national surveys. The political-religious situation can be summarized under five tendencies. First, while the Moscow Patriarchate is not a state church, it is privileged versus all other religions because of its long tradition of “symphony” under the direction of the Russian state. Second, the Russian state looks to the Russian Orthodox Church for support in foreign policy, and uses it as a connection to other Orthodox and Christian churches and their states. Third, the less foreign the religion, the better it is likely to be treated. Fourth, world religions are better treated than groups like the Jehovah’s Witnesses and the Unification Church, which are treated as sects [sekt]. Fifth, in the state application of somewhat ambiguous religious law, local decisions often take precedence. The Religious Freedom Act of 1997, which replaced the more democratic law of 1990, specified that only religious groups that had been in Russia for fifteen years could be registered. It also divided those groups into those that could own property and those that could not. The Vatican and the Moscow Patriarchate came into conflict in February 2002 when the Vatican upgraded four geographic areas—Moscow, Saratov, Novosibirsk, and Irkutsk—to permanent dioceses. There are only 600,000 Catholics in Russia, so Catholic-Russian Orthodox relations are more significant in European politics than in Russian ones. In preparation for the G-8 Economic Summit in St. Petersburg in July 2006, Moscow Patriarch Aleksy II hosted a World Summit of Religious Leaders attended by 200 religious leaders from 49 countries. The Catholic delegation included all relevant ecumenical dialogue partners except the pope. Global Orthodox- Catholic relations improved with the Pope’s visit to the Patriarch in Constantinople and other moves. The patriarch died on Dec. 5, 2008, and was succeeded in late January by Kirill I, who had been chairman of the church's external relations department which drafted the very important 2000 document "Foundations of the Social Conception of the Russian Orthodox Church." He had also fostered ecumenical relations with other churches. Both Putin and Medvedev attended Kirill's installation. After a decade of floundering following the demise of the Soviet Union, Russia has founded a new form of national political power under Vladimir Putin. Putin, an ex-Federal Security Service director, originally came to power in 1999 with Russian patriotic support for the war in Chechnya to battle separatists. His siloviki [root word is “power”] bring together ex-KGB, army, law enforcement, and tax police to control the oligarchs and the mafia. Just prior to the December 2003 the siloviki arrested Russia’s richest man, Mikhail Khodorkovsky, the chief executive of Yukos Oil. Now Gazprom, the state gas monopoly, is the world’s fifth largest company and a principal business partner in Russia’s new economy. Putin's United Russia Party won a landslide victory in the December 2007 parliamentary elections. Then Putin, constitutionally unable to run for a third consecutive term, sponsored former law professor and protege, Dmitri A. Medvedev, for the presidency in March 2008. Medvedev won in a landslide. This led analysts to speculate on the future relations between the two men and their supporters in the offices of the presidency and the prime minister, which latter office Putin has assumed. In terms of political culture, Russia has favored a single strong ruler. State relations between the believer Putin and the Orthodox Church are also ambiguous. The Moscow Patriarchate and its symbols are part of national pride and patriotism, but the more conservative sections of Russian Orthodoxy are not trusted by some siloviki. For the case of a strengthening state-church alliance, see the Wall Street Journal (December 18, 2007) and the New York Times (April 24, 2008) below. In August 2008 when Georgia sent troops into South Ossetia, the Russians responded militarily, then recognized both South Ossetia and Abkhazia as independent. This greatly increased tension with the European Union and the United States, and gained notice from other minorities within Russia. U.S. President Obama's visit to Moscow in July 2009 improved relations somewhat. Belarus has a population of 9.6 million, with a negative growth rate of -0.36 percent (July 2011 est). It had a 2010 HDI ranking of #61 and a 2010 CPI ranking of 2.5. The CIA Factbook lists Belarus (est. 1997) as 80% Eastern Orthodox and 20% other (Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, Muslim). Since his election in a relatively fair vote in 1994, President Aleksandr G. Lukashenko has solidified political control over Belarus. He was last elected in a suspect vote in March 2006. In Europe, Belarus exists in the Russian sphere, and received, for example, discounted Russian gas. In early 2007, however, the two countries struggled over the price to be charged. Belarus has promulgated a stricter religious law than Russia, even closing the liberal European Humanities University established by professors and elements of the Belarussian Orthodox Russian Church which sponsored its theology department. Hanson (2006) discusses “Western Christianity and the Byzantine Empire” (pp. 98-101); and “Orthodox Europe in the Post-Communist Period” (pp. 150-55). 2. A Short Introductory Course to Religion and Politics in Russia Davis provides a good historical summary of the church. Daniel discusses the Orthodox Church and Civil Society. His book provides a general history of Orthodoxy in Russia, plus a more detailed treatment of the twentieth century. The new material focuses on grassroots attempts to deal with social change, illustrated by four very important local leaders of varying perspectives and the impact of their religious work on the formation of civil society. John Burgess details the current religious-political situation, contrasting the resurgence of the Russian Orthodox Church, so that the majority identify with it, with the fact that Russia is a very secular country with low levels of religious practice. The Garrards narrate the time of politics of ex-KGB member Patriarch Alexsy II who "reached an accomodation satisfactory to both [state and Moscow Patriarchy], reunited the ROC with its diaspora children, recovered much of the property and patrimony of the church, and maintained the exceptionalism of the ROC against Catholic feelers toward reconciliation." (p. 253). Connelly discusses the Russian problematic in dealing with Stalin's crimes. Davis, Nathaniel. A Long Walk to Church: A Contemporary History of Russian Orthodoxy (Boulder, Co.: Westview Press, 1995). Daniel, Wallace L. The Orthodox Church and Civil Society (College Station, Tx.: Texas A&M University Press, 2006). Burgess, John J. "Orthodox Resurgence: Civil Religion in Europe," Religion in Eastern Europe 39 (May 2009): 1-14. Burgess says that Orthodoxy provides Russia's civil religion in three ways: 1) "to be Russian is to be Orthodox;" 2) social reconstruction replacing Soviet Communism; and 3) a sense of national mission. Garrard, John, and Garrard, Carol. Russian Orthodoxy Resurgent: Faith and Power in the New Russia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008). Connelly, John. "The Ultimate Crime: Katyn & the Invention of Genocide," Commonweal (August 13, 2010): 17-20. Stalin's secret police shot 22,000 Polish military officers in April 1940. How does Russia deal with such events? Putin has become much more truthful after long history of blaming it on the Nazis. 3. Other Key Resource Materials for Religion and Politics in Russia Anonymous Clergy Document. "Marxism-Leninism Lives and Prevails in the Church," Religion in Eastern Europe 39 (May 2009): 19-25. Criticisms of several Russian priests, not from Moscow Eparchy, who have served for a long time. They signed the 64-page document, but translator used pseudonyms. Criticisms highlight Soviet-style bureaucratic control. Daniel, Wallace L. "Aleksandr Men and Russian Orthodoxy: The Conflict Between Freedom and Power," Religion in Eastern Europe 29 (November 2009): 1-20. The history and theology of this prophetic Orthodox priest who focused his thought on "freedom." Ellis, Jane. The Russian Orthodox Church: A Contemporary History (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1986). Hallensleben, Barbara. "Patriarch Kirill and Ecumenism," Religion in Eastern Europe 39 (May 2009): 15-18. A defense of the Patriarch against some Western criticism. Khroul, Victor M. "Initiatives of TV Ethics Control by Religions in Russia: Challenges for Implementation," Religion in Eastern Europe 30 (May 2010): 1-9. Linzey, Sharon, and Krotov, Iakov, “The Future of Religion and Religious Future in Russia,” Kontinent (May 2000), translated in Religion in Eastern Europe 51 (October 2001): 26-47. Politkovskaya, Anna. A Russian Diary: A Journalist's Final Account of Life, Corruption, and Death in Putin's Russia (New York: Random House, 2007). Ramet, Pedro. Ed. Catholicism and Politics in Communist Societies: Christianity Under Stress Volume 2 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1990). Ramet, Pedro. Cross and Commissar: The Politics of Religion in Eastern Europe and the USSR (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1987). Sawatsky, Walter. "Reflections on the Urgency of Theological Education in the Former Soviet Union," Religion in Eastern Europe 30 (May 2010): 20-26. A fine summary of the changes in theological education, especially by Orthodox and Protestant churches, since 1990. Simon, Constantin, S.J., Pro Russia: The Russicum and the Catholic Work for Russia (Rome: Pontifical Oriental Institute, 2009). A very detailed history of the Russicum in Rome in the context of changing Catholic-Orthodox relations. Lots of material and photos, etc. Vermaat, J.A. Emerson. The World Council of Churches and Politics. New York: Freedom House, 1989. 4. Recent Articles on Russia and Belarus (a. General Politics; b. Politics and Economics; c. Religion and Society; d. Foreign and Security Policy; e. Belarus): a. General Politics “Moscow Rally Held to Protest Growing Rate Of Hate Crimes,” New York Times, December 19, 2005. Protest, “Russian Without Fascism,” against increased anti-immigrant sentiment. Immigrants coming mostly from Ukraine and Kazakhstan for construction work. “Bill to Increase Russia’s Control of Over Charities Moves Ahead,” New York Times, December 22, 2005. Lower house vote to increase control of international organizations that might foster greater democratization and civil society. “Rights Activists Gather to Call for Russian Evolution,” New York Times, July 12, 2006. Meeting of “The Other Russia” (July 11-12) before the G8 Summit. “Rampage in Russian City Reflects Wider Ethnic Conflict,” New York Times, September 13, 2006. Anti-immigrant (Chechen) brawl and riots in Kondopoga, near Finland. Economic roots and immigration. “Journalist Critical of Chechen War Is Shot Dead in Moscow,” New York Times, October 8, 2006. Novaya Gazeta reporter and human rights advocate Anna Politkovskaya murdered. "Nationalistic Russians take amim at migrants," San Jose Mercury News, December 31, 2006. Rising xenophobia. "Beheading and Shooting by Russian Neo-Nazis on Video," New York Times, August 15. By previously unknown National-Socialist Party, but note called for resignation of Putin for government formed by National-Socialist Society under Dmitri G. Rumyantsev, and demanded release of another neo-Nazi. "Gorbachev warns Russians against rise of Stalinism," Yahoo! News, September 26, 2007. Article by Dmitry Solovyov on efforts to play down Stalin's atrocities, claiming "he did more good than bad." "Putin Backs a Young Loyalist As His Choice to Follow Him," New York Times, December 11, 2007. Discussion of goal of strategy. Will Putin have Medvedev resign and he could then succeed? Problems: Putin came in under similar circumstances in 1999, and Russia does not have a tradition of behind the scene's political management as (web author comment) China does, e.g., Deng Xiaoping. Medvedev offered Putin the primeministership and Putin accepted. "Putin Aide Secures His Assured Victory in Russian Vote," New York Times, March 3, 2008. Medvedev, 42, secured a "commanding victory." Speculation on future relations with the personally more powerful Putin. "Hard Tasks Lie Ahead For Protege In Russia," New York Times, May 7, 2008. Difficulties facing Medvedev: power relationships with Putin and state bureaucracy, inflation, corruption, inflation, negative birth rate, poor health system, etc. But high global energy prices and renewed Russian pride help. "Russia's Liberal Opposition Loses Its Voice Under Putin's Umbrella," New York Times, December 24, 2008. The demise of independent liberal politics in Russia illustrated by the case of Nikita Y. Belykh, who left the Union of Right Forces, which subsequently morphed into the Kremlin-directed Right Cause, and accepted a governorship from Putin. Putin made the governorships appointive in 2005. "Draft Law Revives Practice of Soviets," New York Times, July 17, 2010. Lower house passes law which allows the FSB to officially warn citizens that their activities could lead to a future violation of law, a practice of the KGB. Response to subway suicide bombings. "Medvedev Warns Islamic Separatists," New York Times, March 30, 2011. On the anniversary of Moscow suicide attacks, president warns separatists in North Caucasus region. b. Politics and Economics “Workers’ Paradise Is Rebranded as Kremlin Inc.,” New York Times, April 24, 2006. Analysis of political-business ties in Putin’s Russia, featuring the role of Gazprom, the state gas monopoly, which is the world’s fifth largest corporation. c. Religion and Society “Russian Church-State Line Blurs,” Wall Street Journal, March 29, 2005. Moscow court convicts organizers of “Caution, Religion!” art exhibit for inciting religious hatred. A TV Extravaganza of Music! Comedy! Militia! K.G.B.!” New York Times, December 23, 2005. Russian patriotic TV extravaganzas. A World Summit of Religious Leaders, attended by 200 religious leaders from 49 countries, was sponsored by Patriarch Alexy II, as a lead-in to the July 15 meeting of the G-8 nations in St. Petersberg. New York Times, July 5, 2006. "A Clash of Cultures at a Square in Moscow," New York Times, July 11, 2007. Orthodox Christian youth patrolling small chapel to keep area from being used by gays. Chapel also houses 19th-century Russo-Turkish War hero, overlaying skinheads versus Central Asian tensions. "Welcome or Not, Orthodoxy Is Back in Russia's Public Schools," New York Times, September 23, 2007. Local adaptations of religious instruction in Russian public schools. Ten prominent scientists protest such instruction and national influence of Othodoxy. "Putin's Last Realm to Conquer," New York Times, December 1, 2007. Having gotten control of security services, oil business, mass media, and almost all levers of government, Putin seeks to consolidate control of national culture. Links to Russian Orthodox Church. "Putin Opens Mecca Path For Muslims," New York Times, December 17, 2007. To improve domestic relations with Muslims and foreign relations with Saudi Arabia, Putin allows as many as want to go on pilgrimage. Saudi Arabia raises quota fromk 20,000 to 26,000. End of violence in North Caucasus plus Russian economic growth has encouraged people to go. Russian government still suspects Wahhabi-style Islam. Muslims make up 14-23 of 140 million Russian citizens. Country has 4,000 mosques compared with 90 at the end of the U.S.S.R. Government has set up $60 million fund to support Islamic culture, science, and education, including state-accredited schools. "Putin and Orthodox Church Cement Power in Russia," Wall Street Journal, December 18, 2007. Case of Father Sergei Taratukhin, defrocked for his defense of Mikhail Khodorskovsky, and treatment of the general alliance of Putin's Kremlin and the Orthodox Church. Background during Soviet times. "Russia Embraces Its Church, Leaving Western Faiths in the Cold," New York Times, April 24, 2008. Orthodox led by Aleksy II "in symphony" with state. Article features southwestern Russia and regional determinants very strong. Discrimination against Protestants especially from anti-West and tradition of state control. "Slavic Rivals Embroiled in Church Rift," New York Times, July 30, 2008. Ukraine president Yushchenko proposes autonomous Ukrainian Orthodox Church at 1,020 anniversary of founding of Orthodoxy in Kievan Rus. Ecumenical Patriarch Baratholomew non-commital, but Russian church leaders strongly opposed to losing control. Patriarch Aleksy II called Kiev "the mother of Russian cities, a city from where Holy Orthodoxy began to spread through our land." "Conflict Tests Ties Between the Georgian and Russian Orthodox Churches," New York Times, September 6, 2008. In wake of armed conflict, Patriarch Aleksy II grieved that "Orthodox Christians have raised their hands against each other," separating himself slightly from the government position. Georgian Patriarch Ilia II said that "one thing that concerns us very deeply--that Orthodox Russians are bombing Orthodox Georgians." First fighting between majority Orthodox nations since 1913 in the Balkans with many countries against Bulgaria. "Russian Leaders Attend Patriarch's Funeral," New York Times, December 10, 2008. Rev. Dmitri Smirnov, in charge of church's relations with armed forces, stressed the contribution of Aleksy II in rebuilding the church since the fall of communism and the 2007 union with the Russian Orthodox Church outside of Russia. Muslim, Jewish, and Vatican representatives attended the ceremony. "Russian Orthodox Church Elects Outspoken Patriarch," New York Times, January 28, 2009. Metropolitan Kirill of Smolensk and Kaliningrad elected. Discussion of background of candidates. "Russian Leaders Attend Installation of Orthodox Patriarch," New York Times, February 2, 2009. Political and religious leaders attend ceremony in Christ the Savior Cathedral, rebuilt as a symbol of the church's resurgence after communism. Putin, Medvedev, Cardinal Walter Kasper from the Vatican, and Metropolitan Vladimir of Kiev, leader of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church, all attended. "A Dress Code For Russians? Priest Chides Skimpiness," New York Times, January 19, 2011. Archpriest Vsevolod Chaplin proposes an "all-Russian dress code," angering feminists. d. Foreign and Security Policy “Russia Was Leader in Arms Sales to Developing World in ’05,” New York Times, October 29, 2006. Congressional “Conventional Arms Transfers to Developing Nations” documents Russia overtaking U.S. for first time since fall of U.S.S.R. U.S. remains first in total sales to both Developing and Developed Nations. France second on both lists. "Russia Near Deal to Join the W.T.O.," New York Times, November 11, 2006. U.S. representative Susan Schwab comments. Sticking points have been agricultural inspections and intellectual property. Russia gets few immediate gains, but it is a sign of belonging to major countries setting global economic policy. "Russia Turns to Spin to Redefine Itself and Reassure the West," New York Times, January 29, 2007. The Russian presentation of its current state to the global Davos meeting. "Russia Prevailed on the Ground, but Not in the Media," and "U.S. Sees Much to Fear in a Hostile Russia, Which Has New Leverage," New York Times, August 22, 2008. The immediate fallout from Russian military victory in Georgia. Russian troops attacked on August 8 in response to Georgian assault on Moscow-backed separatists in South Ossetia. Sarkozy of France mediated pullback. "Coming to Grips With Russia's New Nerve," oped by James Traub, New York Times, September 7, 2008. Following Russia's foray into South Ossetia, is Moscow an expansionist belligerent power or a "normal" state seeking strong influence in its neighboring sphere as it grows in power? "Russia's Recognition of Georgian Areas Raises Hopes of Its Own Separatists," New York Times, September 10, 2008. Will Russian move into South Ossetia affect Moscow's relations with other minority groups. History of those groups. "Mayor of Moscow Exports Russia's New Nationalism," New York Times, October 26, 2008. Mayor Yuri Luzhkov has played significant role in exporting Russian nationalism into Georgia, the Crimea, etc. in ambiguous role for city mayor. Blessing of Putin for role and alliance with Russian Orthodox Church. "U.S. and Russia Take Step to Cut Nuclear Arms," New York Times, July 7, 2009. Obama and Medvedev set general parameters for continuing arms talks. The two countries have roughly 95% of nuclear weapons. e. Belarus “Protesters Charge Fraud in Belarus Presidential Election,” New York Times, March 20, 2006. "From Poland, Satellite TV Tries to Pierce the Belarus Media Muzzle," New York Times, April 24, 2011. " Russia Uses Its Airwaves, and Then Its Power Lines, to Strike at Belarus President," New York Times, June 30, 2011. August 16, 2011. |
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