Religion and Politics in Sub-Saharan AfricaSee also Nigeria, North Africa, South Africa. 1. Brief Introduction 1. Brief Introduction to Religion and Politics in Sub-Saharan Africa In treating religion and politics in Sub-Saharan Africa, it is important to consider the results of the slave trade, by both Arabs and Europeans; the impact of Western colonialism; the relationships among indigenous religions, Christianity, and Islam; governmental authoritarianism; and major humanitarian crises, from Rwanda to Darfur. Most political issues are complicated by the mostly artificial national boundaries set by the colonial powers. The Congo is the center piece of the continent and can serve as a poignant example for all that went wrong in sub-Saharan Africa. The country suffered a particularly cruel and inept colonization under King Leopold of Belgium and then under the Belgian state. Although the country is very rich in natural resources, it stands at #136 in the 2009 HDI rankings. In fact, most of the countries with low HDI rankings (#159 and below in the U.N. list) are in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Democratic Republic of the Congo has a population of over 68 million, with a high population growth rate of 3.21% (July 2009 est). The country is made up of over 200 African ethnic groups, most of which are Bantu. Literacy is listed at 65.5% (2001est). The population is 50% Roman Catholic, 20% Protestant, 10% Kimbanguist, 10% Muslim, and 10% other syncretic sects and indigenous beliefs. The Congo received its independence in 1960, but Colonel Joseph Mobutu seized power in 1965 and kept power for 32 years. He renamed himself Mobutu Sese Seko and the country Zaire. Mobutu played both sides of the Cold War and looted the country incessantly. Major ethnic strife and civil war, exacerbated by refugees from Rwanda and Burundi, began in 1994 and eventually led to Mobutu’s toppling in May 1997 by Laurent Kabila. Africa’s “First World War” continued until the Pretoria Accord at the end of 2002. By then Laurent had been assassinated and replaced by his son Joseph in January 2001. A transitional government was established in July 2003, and countrywide elections took place on July 30, 2006. However, in August 2009, the new government continues to face instability, especially around North Kivu Province. If Mobutu stands as the most persuasive negative example of African political leadership, Ketumile Masire of Botswana serves as a countervailing positive example. Masire brought democracy and greater market participation to his country and played a positive role in continental affairs. He also became first vice-chairman of the OAU in 1991. He served as the chairman of the Eminent Persons Committee investigating Rwanda and from 2000-2003 he was the facilitator for the Congolese National Dialogue. If Africa ranks low on economic and communication system development, for example, the Congo has only 300 miles of paved roads, the continent is very important in terms of natural resources, including oil, and for the future of religion in the world system. Islam is strong in the northern section of the continent (population 190.5 million), making up 87% of the population. West Africa (population 256.9 million) is 46.3% Muslim and 35.5% Christian. Middle Africa (population 106.2 million) is 81.5% Christian and 9.2% Muslim. East Africa (population 282.3 million) is 61.4% Christian and 21.6% Muslim. Southern Africa (52 million) is 82.1% Christian and 2.2% Muslim. (World Christian Database) See Paden (below) for his analysis of Islam and Christianity on the African continent. He uses Egypt (mostly Muslim), Nigeria (split), and the Union of South Africa (mostly Christian) as the anchors for his analysis. He also demonstrates the Muslim links between Nigeria and Sudan, which have resulted in Nigerian peace keepers in Darfur. Catholic and Protestant Churches remain strong in Sub-Saharan Africa, despite the fact that they originally accompanied colonization. Catholic, mainline Protestant, and independent African churches all detached themselves from the colonizer, and African church leaders took over. For example, when Pope John Paul II visited Kinshasa in May 1980, African Cardinal Joseph Malula and fifty-three native Zairian bishops met him at the airport. The Flemish missionaries remained in the Congo to work under the African bishops until that generation died out. With regard to the creation of independent African churches, Jenkins (below, p. 48) describes a common pattern. An enthusiastic convert to one of the mainline mission churches gradually became estranged over the tension between native culture and church practices. Then he/she received a call to found a church which preaches “the real African meaning” of Christianity. That new independent church then emphasizes visions and charismatic gifts. The Hutu genocide of 500,000 Tutsi in Rwanda serves as the great terrible event of the last two decades. Tribal identity in politics, abetted by the virulently anti-Tutsi Radio-Télévision Libre Mille Collines, triumphed over common Catholic religious identity, though not completely. An estimated three hundred priests died, either because they were Tutsi or because they tried to save Tutsi. Twice before, in 1959 and 1963, the churches had become recognized sanctuaries during ethnic violence, but not in 1994. Hutu Archbishop Vincent Nsengiumva’s close identification with the Hutu political party contributed to the problem. In the end, “the ideologues and the opportunists and the thugs” (see U.N. prosecutor Pierre-Richard Prosper in Berkeley, p. 262) joined in committing a terrible slaughter. Neither the U.N. nor the U.S. intervened effectively. Sudan is Africa’s largest country geographically, with a population of over 41 million and a population growth rate of 2.14% (2009 est). It is ethnically 52% black, 39% Arab, 6% Beja, 2% foreigner, and 1% others. Religiously, it is 70% Sunni Muslim (in north), 25% indigenous, 5% Christian (mostly in south and Khartoum). The Sudan gained independence from Britain in 1956 and the civil war between the north and the south began almost immediately. It paused from 1972-1983, then resumed. During the next twenty years two million died and four million became refugees. In 2005 the government and the southern Sudanese People Liberation Army (SPLA) signed a treaty which provided for a six-year transition period followed by a southern referendum on secession. The second Sudanese conflict, in Darfur, began in February 2003. That conflict pitted the government-backed Arab Muslim mounted militias, the janjaweed, against predominantly black Muslims, and resulted in approximately 200,000 deaths in the first two years. The political situation has since become much more fragmented, with another 100,000 dying and nearly three million in internal displacement camps (IDP). There is a joint United Nations-African Union (UNAMID) peacekeeping force of roughly 20,000, and the International Criminal Court has charged Sudanese President al-Bashir for crimes against humanity, and war crimes in Darfur. Despite the tragic experiences of war, famine, and AIDs, Sub-Saharan Africa's economy has grown by over five percent for the fifth straight year. The continent has benefited from rising prices for raw materials, in which China, the United States, and Europe have all bid up prices. It has also received both debt reduction and increased Western aid. In November 2007 the World Bank reacted to a critical inside report by focusing its programs on rural agricultural development. See "Political Economy" below. Hanson (2006) discusses Ellis and ter Haar: African spirit world; Berkeley: Nigerian urban “kinship corporations” (pp. 248-50); Catholic bishops protest Nigeria in Organization of the Islamic Conference (p. 53); Desmond Tutu versus Alan Boesak on political violence (p. 64); Rwandan genocide (pp. 300-01); and Archbishop Desmond Tutu and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) (p. 316). 2. A Short Introductory Course to Religion and Politics in Sub-Saharan Africa Reader offers a one-volumn synthesis introduction to the politics, society, and natural environment of the entire continent. Stearns provides a fine narrative and analysis of Africa's two Great Wars following the Rwanda conflict. Berkeley’s book contains chapters on Liberia, U.S. Assistant Secretary Crocker, the Congo, South Africa, Sudan, and Rwanda. Ellis and ter Haar stress the connection of political power to its source in the spirit world. Sanne and Carpenter have brought together studies focused on Africa and the African Diaspora (Part I) and World Christianity and the West since 1850 (Part II). Rutagambwa discusses the current state of the Catholic Church in Rwanda. Jenkins brings the story of indigenous Christianity in Africa up to 2006. Teresia Hinga describes the history of Catholic Theology in East Africa Today. Reader, John. A Biography of the Continent: Africa (New York: Vintage Books, 1997). Stearns, Jason K. Dancing in the Glory of Monsters (New York: Public Affairs, 2011). Berkeley, Bill. The Graves Are Not Yet Full: Race, Tribe and Power in the Heart of Africa (New York: Basic Books, 2002). Ellis, Stephen, and ter Haar, Gerrie. Worlds of Power: Religious Thought and Political Practice in Africa (New York: Oxford, 2004). Sanneh, Lamin, and Carpenter, Joel A., eds. The Changing Face of Christianity: Africa, the West, and the World (New York: Oxford, 2005). Rutagambwa, Elisée, “The Rwandan Church: The Challenge of Reconciliation,” Paul Christopher Manuel, Lawrence C. Reardon, Clyde Wilcox, eds. The Catholic Church and the Nation-State: Comparative Perspectives (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2006), 173-90. Jenkins, Philip. The New Faces of Christianity: Believing the Bible in the Global South (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006). 3. Other Key Resource Materials for Religion and Politics in Sub-Saharan Africa Albright, Madeleine, “Africa: A Race for Souls,” in The Mighty and the Almighty: Reflections on America, God, and World Affairs (New York: HarperCollins, 2006), 251-66. Appiah-Kubi, Kofi. African Theology En Route (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1979). Bediako, Kwame. Jesus and the Gospel in Africa: History and Experience (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2004). Corten, Andre, and Marshall-Fratani, Ruth, eds. Between Babel and Pentecost: Transnational Pentecostalism in Africa and Latin America. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2001. Elenga, Yvon C., S.J., “The Congolese Church: Ecclesial Community within the Political Community,” Paul Christopher Manuel, Lawrence C. Reardon, Clyde Wilcox, eds. The Catholic Church and the Nation-State: Comparative Perspectives (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2006), 245-58. Faulkner, Mark R.J. Overtly Muslim, Covertly Boni: Competing Calls of Religious Alliance on the Kenyan Coast (London: Brill, 2006). Freston, Paul. Evangelicals and Politics in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Gifford, Paul. Ghana’s New Christianity: Pentecostalism in a Globalising African Economy. London: Hurst, 2004. Hastings, Adrian. A History of African Christianity, 1950-75. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979. Haynes, Jeffrey. Religion and Politics in Africa. London: Zed, 1996. Heywood, Linda, “The Angolan Church: The Prophetic Tradition, Politics, and the State,” Paul Christopher Manuel, Lawrence C. Reardon, Clyde Wilcox, eds. The Catholic Church and the Nation-State: Comparative Perspectives (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2006), 191-206. Hochschild, Adam. King Leopold’s Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1998). This book gives a strong appreciation of the horrors of the Belgian King Leopold’s colonization of the Congo. Jenkins, Philip. The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002). Jenkins discusses Africa in many places. Paden, John N. Faith and Politics in Nigeria: Nigeria as a Pivotal State in the Muslim World (Washington, D.C.: United State Institute of Peace Press, 2008). For this entry, focus on Nigeria's Islamic links to the rest of Africa. Wrong, Michela. In the Footsteps of Mr. Kurtz: Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu’s Congo (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2002). WEBSITES: www.govindicators.org. “Governance Matters, 2007: Worldwide Governance Indicators 1996-2006.” This World Bank report, based on data from a diverse set of organizations, from Freedom House to Reporters Without Borders, undermines “Afro-pessimism.” Worldwide, national gains and losses led to little global improvement overall. The official site of the Circle of Concerned African Women Theologians. 5. Recent News Articles (a. General Politics; b. General Politics and Economics, c. General Religion and Politics, d. Congo/Rwanda; e. Kenya/Uganda; f. Sudan/Darfur; g. Somalia/Ethiopia/Eritrea; h. Zimbabwe): a. General Politics “For Liberians, an Election Is Also a Vote of Confidence,” New York Times, October 10, 2005. Free election after terror of Charles Taylor, warlord-turned-president. In runoff on November 8, Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, ex-U.N. and World Bank official, defeated soccer hero George Weah 59.6% to 40.4%. Liberia has a population of 3.44 million, with a population growth rate of 2.69% (2009 est.). It is 40% Christian, 40% indigenous beliefs, and 20% Muslim. “Ivory Coast’s Ethnic Lines Harden, Hobbling Economy,” New York Times, October 31, 2005. The state of no war-no peace hardens between the southern animists and Christians and the northern, mostly immigrants, Muslims. Story of tension between northern Dioula and southern Guéré in no man’s land of Fengolo. Ivory Coast [Cote d’Ivoire], which had a 2008 HDI ranking of #166, has a population of over 20 million, with a growth rate of 2.13%. It is 38.6% Muslim, 32.8% Christian, 11.9% indigenous, 16.7% none (2008 est.) The CIA Factbook notes that migrant workers are 70% Muslim and 20% Christian. "African Union Picks Ghanaian as Its Leader, in Snub to Sudan," New York Times, January 1, 2007. Because of worsening violence in Darfur, the 53-member organization passed over Sudan and selected Ghanaian president John Kufuor. "Africa's Storied Colleges, Jammed and Crumbling," New York Times, May 20, 2007. Crisis in universities that prepared the first generation of leadership after decolonization. Lack of economic support and too many students results in "warehousing younger generation." Africa has lost 20K professionals per year since 1990. "New AIDS Cases in Africa Outpace Treatment Gains," New York Times, June 6, 2007. 28 percent who need treatment are getting it, compared with 2 percent in 2003, but new infections rate has not changed since late 1990s. For each person placed on regime, there are five new infections. Sub-Saharan Africa has nearly 25 million infected, but might face an additional 36 million by 2015. Medical and cultural issues. "Poll Shows Africans Wary, But Hopeful About Future," New York Times, July 25, 2007. 2007 (8,471 interviews in April and May) results of Afrobarometer public opinion survey of ten countries. Different results for each country, but a plurality say they are better off than five years ago, despite facing a wide variety of challenges, from disease, to ethnic violence. "Libera's Trials: The challenge of forging a lasting peace," America, May 4, 2009. Short discussion of Truth and Reconciliation Commission and its relation to judicial procedings. "After Years of Mass Killings, Fragile Calm Holds in Darfur," New York Times, January 2, 2010. Recent improvements, but 2.7 million refugees still stuck in camps. b. General Politics and Economics (Since this section covers many countries, the basic statistics for each country are added to the newspaper articles.) “Outsourcing: Why Jobs Aren’t Going to Africa,” G. Pascal Zachary oped, San Jose Mercury News, April 25, 2004. Case of small outsourcing to Ghana, and difficulties in Sub-Saharan Africa for outsourcing. Technology and Africa. “2 Foundations Join in Africa Agricultural Push,” and “Philanthropist Gives $50 Million to Help Aid the Poor in Africa,” New York Times, September 13, 2006. Gates and Rockefeller Foundations join to increase agricultural productivity in Africa. Soros supports Sachs’ Millennium Promise effort to jump-start African villages. “China Courts Africa, Angling for Strategic Gains,” New York Times, November 3, 2006. China stages “Africa weekend” with political leaders from 48 of 53 countries. China wishes to secure resources, especially oil, iron ore, and copper, in exchange for aid. Criticism over impact on human rights, corruption, mercantilism. "China's Trade With Africa Carries a Price Tag," New York Times, August 21, 2007. Focus on Zambia and pluses and minuses, especially in manufacturing and mine safety, of Chinese government investment. Along with driving up prices of raw materials, China is exporting huge volumes of manufactured goods. "As Angola Rebuild, Most Find Their Poverty Persists," New York Times, October 14, 2007. Angola's oil wealth (second to Nigeria in Sub-Saharan Africa) results in economic development, but not in spreading of wealth. Article features Chinese loans and construction. "World Bank Report Puts Agriculture at Core of Antipoverty Effort," New York Times, October 20, 2007. Inside Study ("Agriculture for Development," in New York Times, October 15) faults World Bank for decreased emphasis on agriculture. In its 2008 World Development Report, the World Bank calls for this readjustment. "World Bank Ends Effort To Help Chad Ease Poverty," New York Times, September 11, 2008. In 2000 World Bank agreed to help finance Chad's oil pipeline if Chad would dedicate part of the earnings to eradicating poverty. Project ended because government did not keep its part of the deal, despite an independent oversight board. "Report Offers Optimistic View of African Economies," New York Times, June 24, 2010. Summary of report from McKinsey Global Institute. c. General Religion and Politics: "African Bishops Urge Catholic Politicians on Continent to 'Repent' or Step Down," New York Times, October 24, 2009. Synod of African Bishops calls on corrupt politicians to change or resign. No names were mentioned by the bishops, but Zimbabwe's Robert Mugabe and Angola's Jose Eduardo dos Santos are mentioned in the article. "Synod offers clues to 'African effect' in Catholic future," National Catholic Reporter, October 30, 2009. John Allen's analysis of issues at Roman synod of African bishops, e.g., migration, good goverance, trading conditions, environment, threats to women, diseases, arms trade, and "lust of some multinational corporations." "After U.S. Evangelicals Visit, Uganda Considers Death for Gays," New York Times, January 4, 2010. Homosexuality is already outlawed in Uganda, but proposed 2009 Anti-Homosexuality Law included the death penalty. After political and aid fallout, commission recommended withdrawing in May 2010. Article covers link between U.S. and African churches. d. Congo/Rwanda “Many Armies Ravage Rich Land In the ‘First World War’ of Africa, New York Times, February 6, 2000. Fine long article plus map on all the fighting in sub-Saharan Africa. “In Congo, Hunger and Disease Erode Democracy,” New York Times, June 23, 2006. “Congo Nears Historic Election, Praying for Peace,” New York Times, July 1, 2006. Congo votes in first election since 1965, mind-boggling in its complexity. “Congo Votes in Its First Multiparty Election in 46 Years,” New York Times, July 31, 2006. Statistics and voter response. "Rwandan Priest Sentenced to 15 Years for Allowing Deaths of Tutsi in Church," New York Times, December 14, 2006. International War Crimes Courst in Arusha, Tanzania sentenced Rev. Athanase Seromba, a Hutu, of genocide and crimes against humanity. "Chaos in Darfur On Rise as Arabs Fight with Arabs," New York Times, September 3, 2007. "Fear of New War as Clashes Erupt on Congo's Edge," New York Times, December 13, 2007. Government forces suffer major defeats from rebel General Laurent Nkunda, threatening to restart general African war that supposedly ended in 2003. "Resolving Crisis in Congo Hinges on Foreign Forces," New York Times, December 19, 2007. Role of Hutu militia F.D.L.R. in conflict in East Congo. "Congo Republic Awash in Oil and Poverty," New York Times, December 10, 2007. Report from Brazzaville on Congo Republic's oil wealth and poor distribution to medicine and education. Debate over impact of vulture funds in buying up old debt and seek legal collections. The smaller Congo Republic has a HDI index of #139 in 2008. "In Congo, With Rebels Now at Bay, Calm Erupts," New York Times, March 4, 2009. Cooperation between Congo and Rwanda. e. Kenya/Uganda “Evangelical Boom in Africa,” San Jose Mercury News, March 27, 2006. Spread of evangelicals, backed by U.S. evangelicals, in Uganda. Relations to U.S. HIV/AIDS abstinence program. Map of Christian, Muslim, indigenous, and other percentages in Northern, Western, Middle, Eastern, and Southern Africa (Christian Database, U.S.) Uganda has a population of over 32 million, with a 2.69% growth rate. This 2008 HDI ranked #154. Uganda is 41.9% Roman Catholic, 42% Protestant (35.9% Anglican, 4.6% Pentecostal, 1.5% Seventh Day Adventists), 12.1% Muslim, and 3.1% other (2002 census). “Crisis Swirls in Kenya, and Politicians Reward Themselves,” New York Times, May 22, 2006. In midst of draught and poverty, Kenyan parliament raises their salaries and perks. Kenya, whose 2008 HDI ranking was #148, has a population of over 39 million, with a growth rate of 2.69%. It is 45% Protestant, 33% Roman Catholic, 10% Muslims, 10% indigenous, and 2% other. “Uganda Peace Hinges on Amnesty for Brutality,” New York Times, September 15, 2006. Story of the Lord’s Resistance Army, messianic rebel army from Acholi. Charged by International Criminal Court, but Ugandan government wants amnesty and truce. See April 2008 below. "Might Drink Your Blood, but Otherwise Not Bad Guys," New York Times, June 22, 2007. The Mungiki Menace in the Nairobi slum of Mathare, home to 500,000 people. Mugiki, "a secret society that is part Sicilian mafia, part Chicago street gang, with a little of the occult sprinkled in," destablizing as election nears. "Kenyans Vote in Closely Contested Presidential Election," New York Times, December 28, 2007. Contest between President Mwai Kibaki, 76-year-old Kikuyu (plurality tribe at 22%) who claims credit for recent economic progress, and 62-year-old Luo businessman Raila Odinga, who has united minority tribes. "Disputed Vote Plunges Kenya Into Bloodshed," New York Times, December 31, 2007. Despite advice from Western diplomats, Kenya election commission announces Kibaki the winner, 46-44%, even though vote irregularities seemed responsible. Kenya explodes in rioting. "Evangelizing gone awry," National Catholic Reporter, February 22, 2008. Catholic priest and SOAS faculty member Mark Faulkner discusses the societal and political ramifications of approaching Kenyans through their tribe, e.g., his apostolate to the Maasai and church organization. "2 Kenyan Rivals to Share Power in Bid for Peace," New York Times, February 29, 2008. Odinga accepts powerful prime ministership and Kabaki retains presidency in accord negotiated by Kofi Annan. Prospects for carrying out. "A Tale of Two Elephants: Overcoming the postelection crisis in Kenya," America, March 10, 2008. Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, S.J., rector of Nairobi's Jesuit community at Hekima College, discusses the political-religious situation. "The disillusionment of Kenyans with the political class has revived the debate over the role of religion in society." Pluses and minuses. "Evangelizing gone awry," National Catholic Reporter, February 22, 2008. Catholic priest and SOAS faculty member Mark Faulkner discusses the societal and political ramifications of approaching Kenyans through their tribe, e.g., his apostolate to the Maasai and church organization. "Warlord's Absence Derails Another Peace Effort in Uganda," New York Times, April 12, 2008. Peace negotiations broke down with the Lord's Army when the rebel army's chief negotiator quit and the government negotiator left the remote jungle camp when the deal was supposed to be finalized. "Radical Islamists Slipping Easily Into Kenya," New York Times, July 22, 2009. Somali Islamist Shahab easily bribe way across the largely unmarked border. This month TI listed Kenya as most corrupt nation in East Africa, and police as most corrupt institution. Analysts fear repeat of 1998 bombings by Pakistani and Arab jihadists with links to Al Qaeda. "Peaceful Passage of Constitution Buoys Kenya, but Old Tribal Patterns Persist," New York Times, August 6, 2010. With 67% of the vote, new Constitution which gives more power to the local level, passes, lessening ethnic tension. The voting, however, tended to follow ethnic rather than religious patterns, e.g., although Catholic and evangelical leaders urged a no vote on an anti-abortion stance, adherents of these religions voted yes and no on ethnic affiliation. So conventional wisdom remains that in 2012 the successful presidential candidate will have to win in three of the "big five" ethnic groups--Kikuyu, Luhya, Luo, Kalenjin, Kamba. f. Sudan/Darfur “Uprooted Sudanese Tell of Atrocities by Arab Militias,” New York Times, May 8, 2004. Sudanese governor says Africans can go home, but they know the threat of janjaweed. “In Sudan, Hunter and Hunted Alike Invoke the Prophet,” New York Times, August 22, 2004. “War in Sudan? Not Where the Oil Wealth Flows,” New York Times, October 24, 2006. Sudan’s oil exports result in wealthy Khartoum, even if many do not benefit. "Chaos in Darfur On Rise as Arabs Fight with Arabs," New York Times, September 3, 2007. "Scorched-Earth Strategy Returns to Darfur," New York Times, March 2, 2008. Return of coordinated air strikes, Sudan army troops, and Arab militia attacks to areas where rebels have been spotted. Atrocities by both sides, especially on the rebel side, from Justice and Equality Movement. Connection to struggle in Chad. "As Darfur Fighting Diminishes, U.N. Officials Focus on the South of Sudan," New York Times, August 28, 2009. Departing UNAMID Commander Gen. Martin Luther Agwai states that "real war as such, I think we are over that," and what remains are "banditry, localized issues, people trying to resolve issues over water and land at a local level." Others like Edmond Mulet, the UN assistant secretary general for peacekeeping, point to the remaining threats to security, e.g., 140,000 people have sought refuge in camps since January. g. Somalia/Ethiopia/Eritrea “Ethiopia’s Capital, Once Promising, Finds Itself in Crisis,” New York Times, November 14, 2005. Addis Ababa, African Union’s home, sees protest riots at A.U. meeting first election, after 1995 and 2000, where opposition could campaign. Failure of compromise in Ethiopia tradition. Despite war versus Eritrea (1998-2000) that killed 100,000, Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi had been darling of West. Ethiopia, whose 2008 HDI ranking was #169, has a population of over 85 million, with a growth rate of 3.21%. The 1994 census listed 60.8% Christian (50.6% Orthodox, 10.2% Protestant), 32.8% Muslim, 4.6% traditional religion, and 1.8% other. Eritrea, whose 2008 HDI ranking was #157, has population of over 5.5 million, with a 2.58% growth rate (2008 est.). Eritreans are Muslims, Coptic Christians, Roman Catholics, and Protestants. “In Somalia, Islamic Militias Are Fighting Culture Wars,” New York Times, June 19, 2006. Islamists associated with Council of Islamic Courts drive warlords out of Mogadishu. Background, and which Muslims will control? Somalia has a population of nearly 10 million, with a growth rate of 2.82%. It is Sunni Muslim. The country had been in the control of various fighting warlords and clans since 1991. “New Militant Leader Emerges in Mogadishu,” New York Times, June 26, 2006. U.S. policy fiasco, shift to provinsional U.N.-backed government in Baidoa. Hassan Dahir Awey head of Council of Islamic Courts and more moderate Sharif Ahmad (interview above) as head of executive committee for day-to-day affairs. "Islamists Calm Somali Capital With Restraint," New York Times, September 24, 2006. Moderate message during first three months of occupation. "Ethiopia Said to Push Civilians into Rebel War," New York Times, December 15, 2007. Government presses civilian workers from its and foreign aid institutions into fighting rebels in Ogaden. American-aided government denies. "Somalia Forces Retake Capital From Islamists," New York Times, December 29, 2006. "Christian" Ethiopia backs the U.N. provisional government's retaking of Mogadishu. "Ethiopians Withdraw From Bases in Somalia," New York Times, January 4, 2009. Somalia's Islamist movement makes comeback. "Chaos Breeds New Agony For Somalia: Religious War," New York Times, May 24, 2009. Moderate Sufis, stung by Islamist Shabab attacks on their shrines and imams, form armed groups to defend them. "Clan wars, political wars, we were always careful to stay out of those. But this time, it was religious," said Sheik Omar Mohamed Farah, a Sufi religious leader. This is a highly unusual step for Sufis. Shabab has taken control of Mogadishu, but moderates remain strong in central region. h. Zambia/Zimbabwe “A Humble African Cleric Fiercely Protects His Flock,” New York Times, August 28, 2004. Pius Ncube, Archbishop of Bulawayo, Zimbabwe’s second largest city, strong critic of Mugabe. Archbishop Patrick Chakaipa of Harare was seen as a friend of Mugabe, but when he died the previous year, Rome appointed someone closer to Ncube. “Zimbabwe’s Opposition Party Splits Over Running in Next Election,” New York Times, October 25, 2005. The Movement for Democratic Change splits over running against Mugabe’s National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF). Movement was defeated in March elections seen to be unfair. These elections are for newly formed Senate. Zimbabwe, whose 2008 HDI is #151, has over 11 million population and a population growth rate of 1.53% (2009 est.) It is 50% syncretic (Christian-indigenous), 25% Christian, 24% indigenous, and 1% Muslim and other. "Archbishop in Zimbabwe Is Accused of Adultery," New York Times, July 19, 2007. Zimbabwe's state-controlled television broadcast photographs of what it said was President Mugabe's fiercest critic, Archbishop Ncube, in bed with a married woman. In April the Catholic Bishops Conference had criticized Mugabe in a pastoral letter posted in all the churches on Easter Sunday. Later in the summer Archbishop Ncube resigned. "Zimbabwe Political Standoff May Be Easing," New York Times, September 21, 2007. With South African mediation, both sides make concessions, possibly clearing the way for presidential and parliamentary elections next year. "Mugabe's Presence Hijacks European-African Meeting," New York Times, December 9, 2007. Leaders from 80 European and African countries meet in Lisbon for the first time in seven years. Disagreement over trade and the presence of Mugabe. "Archbishop Calls for Action on Zimbabwe," America, April 28, 2008. Archbishop Buti Tlhagale of Johannesburg, the president of the South African Catholic Bishops' Conference, on April 10, called on leaders of the Southern African Development Community to mandate a mediator of sufficient stature, such as Kofi Annan, to ensure a solution that is acceptable to all Zimbabweans after the disputed election of March 29. On May 13, Archbishop Tlhagale represented the entire conference in calling for an end to torture and violence and the deployment of international election observers for the runoff. "Chruches intimidated, services impeded," National Catholic Reporter, June 13, 2008. Government attacks on church groups and feeding programs. "Africans call for free and fair elections in Zimbabwe," New York Times, June 14, 2008. Advertisement of The Mo Ibrahim Foundation signed by 36 globally prominent Africans from Tutu to Annan to Boutros-Ghali calling for end to violence and stationing of independent electoral observers. "Mugabe Is Sworn In to a 6th Term After Victory in One-Candidate Runoff," New York Times, June 30, 2008. Opponent Morgan Tsvangirai received a plurality (48%) against Mugabe's 43% in the initial vote in March 2008. However, Tsvangirai withdrew from the run-off in June because of intimidation, but Mugabe ran anyway. Then the two entered into negotiations. "Mugabe Signs a Deal To Share His Power," New York Times, September 16, 2008. South African President Thabo Mbeki brokers a deal. "Mugabe Swears In His Rival as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe," New York Times, February 12, 2009. Agreement to share power, but many questions remain as to how it will work out. Zimbabwe has suffered grievously during recent years. Credit: Many faculty and students have been very helpful in helping website author think about Africa. They should not, however, be blamed for his mistakes. August 18, 2001. |
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