Turkey1. Brief Introduction 1. Brief Introduction: Turkey has a population of nearly 72 million, with a population growth rate of 1.01% (July 2008 est). It had a 2008 HDI ranking of #84 and a 2007 CPI ranking of 4.1. The CIA Factbook lists Turkey as 99.8% (mostly Sunni) Muslim and .2% others, mostly Christians and Jews. Mustafa Kemal, later honored as “Ataturk” [“Father of the Turks”] founded modern Turkey out of the remnants of the Ottoman Empire in 1923. His authoritarian rule adopted broad social, legal, and political reforms which secularized the nation. One-party rule ended when the opposition Democratic Party won the 1950 election, and power was transferred peacefully. Democratic rule has since been interrupted by military coups in 1960, 1971, 1980, and 1997. The military has perceived itself as the guarantor of Ataturk’s secular reforms and national unity. The major challenge to this unity has come from the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK), which has sought an independent Kurdish state. An insurgency which began in 1984 has claimed over 30,000 lives, but with the capture of the group’s leader in 1999, the insurgents largely withdrew to the Kurdish sections of northern Iraq. Recently, tension has risen as extremists on both sides sense political gain. The main historical issue concerns the 1915 genocide of Armenians during World War I. Those who raise either the Armenian or the Kurdish issue may find themselves prosecuted in court for "insulting Turkishness," though there has been movement on both issues and on the role of the military as Turkey applies for full membership in the European Union. In 2004, for example, the Constitution was amended to reduce the number of posts reserved for the military, and a civilian led the National Security Council for the first time. Turkey joined NATO in 1952 and became an associate member of the EEC in 1964. In October 2005, all twenty-five countries, even Cyprus, approved the beginning of formal negotiations for full membership in the European Union. Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan, former Mayor of Istanbul and leader of the secular Justice and Development Party (AKP), has crafted a moderately pro-Western message, pledging to be the guarantor of secularism, to distance himself from the AKP’s roots in Islam. Turkish Islam has a rich intellectual heritage, for example, the Nurculuk Movement, following its founder Said Nursi (1873-1960), which emphasized combing multiple sources of knowledge, including those from outside the Islamic tradition. Turkey is becoming more democratic and less secular at the same time, leading to some interesting social and political dynamics. No other Muslim country, for example, is as zealous in the banning of woman’s headscarves, even though the prime minister has criticized the banning. The challenge faced by Justice and Development Party (AKP) is whether the party can bridge the secular-religious divide sufficiently to keep social peace within the country between the Ataturk tradition and Islamic resurgence, while convincing a majority of European Union nations that is it is sufficiently secular and democratic for E.U. membership. Within Turkey, the AKP appeals to the voters on the basis of governmental competence, respect for secular values, religious piety, and its advocacy of E.U. membership. The summer of 2007 demonstrated the shift in power within national politics from the secular elites in the Western cities to the rising Islamic middle class from the heartland. Massive migration of this class to the Western cities plus the economic boom has changed society. After the army blocked the presidential nomination of AKP candidate Abdullah Gul, the party won a resounding victory in the July parliamentary elections and Gul was chosen as president by 399 votes in the 550-seat parliament. While no military coup resulted, secularist opponents filed a court case in March 2008 to bar many of AKP members from politics. The court's decision gave something to both sides, declaring the AKP Constitutional, but halving its funding (See NYT July 31, 2008 below). Many Turks and most European politicians heaved a sigh of relief. 2. Religion and Politics Sections: Emerson support for Turkish admission (p. 159) Whether or not the E.U. will admit Turkey (pp. 246-48) 3. A Short Introductory Course: Bruce Clark discusses the early-twentieth-century mass expulsions of Greeks and Turks from Turkey and Greece respectively, with their political results and human costs. Michael Emerson situates the case of Turkey in the contemporary greater European context. M. Hakan Yavuz and Hassam Bibi disagree about the sincerity of the democratization of Turkish Islam, but the book’s authors generally support Yavuz. The second Yavuz article treats the relationship of religion, politics, and the media. An-Na'im devotes his fifth chapter to Turkey. Clark, Bruce. Twice A Stranger: The Mass Expulsions That Forged Modern Greece and Turkey (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006). Emerson, Michael. Redrawing the Map of Europe (London: Macmillian Press, 1998). Emerson situates Turkey in the general context of Europe and advocates its admission to the European Union. Byrnes, Timothy A., and Katzenstein, Peter J. Religion in an Expanding Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006). The entire book serves as a comparison of Catholicism, Orthodoxy, and Turkish Islam and their influences on the 2004 enlargement of Europe and its aftermath, but especially Chapters Eight (Bibi, “Europeanizing Islam or the Islamization of Europe: political democracy versus cultural differences”) and Nine (Yavuz, “Islam and Europeanization in Turkish-Muslim socio-political movements.”) Yavuz, M. Hakan, “Media Identities for Alevis and Kurds in Turkey,” in Eickelman, Dale F., and Anderson, Jon W., eds. New Media in the Muslim World, 2nd ed. (Bloomington, IN.: Indiana University Press, 2003), 180-99. An-Na'im, Abdullahi Ahmed, "Turkey: Contradictions of Authoritarian Secularism," in Islam and the Secular State: Negotiating the Future of Shari'a (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008), 182-222. 4. Other Resource Materials: Albright, Madeleine, The Mighty and the Almighty: Reflections on America, God, and World Affairs (New York: HarperCollins, 2006), 244-50. Argument for admission to E.U. by ex-Secretary of State. Economist, "a special report on religion and public life," November 3, 2007, pp. 16-18, "Back to the Ottomans" on Turkey and its great significance to the future of Islam. Etzioni, Amitai, "Turkey's Dilemma: How Secularism is Threatening Democracy," Commonweal (August 15, 2008), 11-12. Hurd, Elizabeth Shakman. The Politics of Secularism in International Relations (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008). See Chapters Four and Five for the issue of secularism and Turkish domestic politics (Ch. 4) and Turkey and the E.U. (Ch. 5). Kinzer, Stephen. The Crescent and the Star: Turkey Between Two Worlds (New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 2001). 5. Recent Articles: “Delicately, Pope Deplores 1915 Killing of Armenians,” New York Times, September 27, 2001. Calls deaths “mertz yeghern” [the big calamity] in Armenian, but not “genocide.” Caldwell, Christopher, “Bordering on What?” New York Times Magazine, September 25, 2005. Turkey is becoming more democratic and less secular. “Courting Europe, Turkey Tries Some Soul-Cleansing,” New York Times, December 4, 2005. Relates Turkey entrance to E.U. to current debates on Armenian genocide, Kurdish question, political Islam, etc. Turkey restores Armenian church on Lake Van. “Turks Defer Trial of Novelist Who Cited Armenian Deaths,” New York Times, December 17, 2005. Novelist Orhan Pamuk’s trial deferred to Justice Ministry authorization, politics and law of trial, comments of E.U. observers. “Secular Democracy Goes on Trial,” op-ed by Pankaj Mishra, New York Times, December 16, 2005. Turkish secular nationalism oppression free speech in Pamuk trial. Not always religion as in Khomeini versus Salman Rushdie. “If You Want a Film to Fly, Make Americans the Heavies,” New York Times, February 14, 2006. Blockbuster movie, “Valley of the Wolves—Iraq,” makes Turks the heroes against U.S. forces in Iraq. “Clashes Steer Kurds and Turkey Back on a Rocky Path,” New York Times, April 6, 2006. Over 30,000 were killed in the battles of the 1980s. The KPP called a unilaterial ceasefire in 1999, but called it off in the last two years. 15 people killed in recent days. “Islamic Head Scarves at Issue In Killing of Judge in Turkey,” New York Times, May 18, 2006. Lawyer shot five judges in protest against court verdict against wearing of head scarves. Prime minister and president denounce. “Turkey, a Touchy Critic, Plans to Put a Novel on Trial,” New York Times, September 15, 2006. Court case concerning Elif Shafak, 34, whose best-selling novel “The Bastard of Istanbul” has a character who refers to Armenian “genocide.” She took part in a controversial conference on the Armenian question last year. She sees the case as attempt to block E.U. accession by Turkish nationalists. “Turkish Writers Say Efforts to Stifle Speech May Backfire,” New York Times, October 6, 2006. The politics of Article 301, under which nationalist Turkish Union of Lawyers charge writers with “insulting Turkishness.” “Turkish Laureate Criticizes French Legislation,” New York Times, October 14, 2006. Pamuk, who just won the Nobel Prize, criticizes legislation to criminalize denying that Turks committed genocide against Armenians. Connection of E.U. debate. “Turks’ Bid to Join Europe Stalls on Cyprus and Rights, Official Warns,” New York Times, November 9, 2006. Harsh tone of E.U. report on Turkish entrance. "Allure of Islam Signals a Shift Within Turkey," New York Times, November 28, 2007. The coming papal visit and its relation to the secular-religious fault line in Turkish society. Pope does have successful visit. "Rare Armenian-Turkish Unity at Slain Editor's Funeral," New York Times, January 24, 2007. Funeral for Turkish-Armenian journalist Hrant Kink, gunned down last week. Outpouring of Turkish and Armenian grief. Suspects from Trabzon, hotbed of Turkish nationalist sentiment. Priest killed there earlier. "3 Evangelicals Found Slain in East Turkey," New York Times, April 19, 2007. Killed in Malatya, a town with nationalist reputation. Mehmet Ali Agca, who tried to assassinate John Paul II, also came from Malatya. "Turkish Court Blocks Candidate With Islamic Base," New York Times, May 2, 2007. The highest court, 9-to-2, annulled vote for AKP's Gul on grounds that not enough lawmakers attended. Secular parties had boycotted the vote. The Turkish army had earlier that week issued a threat that it might act if the government strayed too far from secularism. "Governing Party Scores Big Victory in Turkish Vote," New York Times, July 23, 2007. Erdogan's AKP won 46.6 percent of the vote, up from 34 percent in 2002. The secular Republic People's Party won 20.9 percent, and the Nationalist Action Party, focused on the danger of Kurdish separatism, won 14.3 percent. "Turkish Official With Islamic Ties Wins Presidency," New York Times, August 29, 2007. Abdullah Gul, 56-year-old economist and foreign minister who has worked tirelessly for E.U. membership becomes president. He pledges respect for secular values. No military commander attends inauguration. "For Many Turks, Head Scarf's Return Aids Religion and Democracy," New York Times, January 30, 2008. Government decides to let women wear head scarves in universities. Discussion of meaning and impact. 2006 study by Turkish Economic and Social Studies Foundation found 59% of Turks described themselves as "very religious" or "extremely religious." Two-thirds of women in survey said they covered their heads in some way when they left the house. "In Turkey, Bitter Feud Has Roots in History," New York Times, June 22, 2008. Analysis of court case to bar many of the AKP members from politics. Baskin Oran, professor of international relations at Ankara University, "The military is no longer able to make coups. The last line to hold onto is the constitutional court." "Turkey Charges 86, Including Ex-Military Officers, in Coup Plot," New York Times, July 15, 2008. Indictment of those secularists belonging to secret group Ergenekon. Some see as AKP's balancing legal suit to constitutional issue. "Court Declares Turkey's Ruling Party Constitutional but Limits Its Financing," New York Times, July 31, 2008. Of eleven judges, six voted to dissolve the party, but seven needed. Secularists claim "AKP is on probation." AKP claims victory, but affirms support for liberal and secular values. Turkey dodges chaos, to satisfaction of many Turks and Europeans. "Turkey's President Makes Historic Visit to Armenia," New York Times, September 7, 2008. Armenian President Serge Sargsyan invited Turkish President Abdullah Gul to Yerevan, Armenia's capital, for a soccer match between the two nations. Relations have improved after the election of a new Armenia government last year. Russian military actions in Georgia have also brought the two sides closer. A modest start to better relations. "Trial Opens for 86 Turks Accused of Plotting Coup," New York Times, October 21, 2008. Sensational public trial of high-level, mostly retired, ultranationalists accused on plotting overthrow of AKP government. Indictment charges murders of judge, priest, journalist, and three Christian publishing house employees, and plans to assassinate prime minister, president, and others. November 3, 2008 |
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