Campaign Ethics
By Judy Nadler and Miriam Schulman
These materials were prepared for the Markkula Center for
Applied Ethics program in Government Ethics by Senior Fellow
Judy Nadler and Communications Director Miriam Schulman. The
Center provides training in local government ethics for public
officials. For more information, contact Judy
Nadler.
Why are campaign ethics important?
What ethical dilemmas do campaigns present?
Resources on campaign ethics
Why are campaign ethics important?
The ethical principles that apply generally to public life-rules
about conflicts of interest, access to government, integrity,
etc.-also apply to campaigns for political office. Why, then,
treat campaign ethics as a separate topic? In practice, political
campaigns represent one of the circumstances most likely to
bring out the worst in people. Many candidates seem to subscribe
to the theory that almost anything is allowable in order to
get elected, because once in office, they will be outstanding
public servants. Others, confronted with bad behavior on the
part of their opponents, feel they must also cut moral corners
just to compete.
So before we look at the specifics of campaign ethics, it's
worth exploring why ethical campaigns are important. For this,
we have to start by asking the purpose of a political campaign.
Ideally, a campaign clearly outlines the positions and character
of the candidates so that voters can make informed decisions
about whom they wish to see elected. Any tactic that interferes
with this clarity-deception, financial influence, etc.-would
then be unethical, even if used by a candidate with the best
interests of his or her electorate at heart.
An "ends justifies the means" rationale for unethical
campaigning ignores the fact that the means become part of the
end. Unethical practices such as lying are rarely confined to
campaigns. As philosopher Sissela Bok has written,
The failure to look at an entire practice rather than
at their own isolated case often blinds liars to cumulative
harm and expanding deceptive activities. Those who begin with
white lies can come to resort to more frequent and more serious
ones....The aggregate harm from a large number of marginally
harmful instances may, therefore, be highly undesirable in the
end-for liars, those deceived, and honesty and trust more generally.
Unethical campaigns reinforce cynicism and negative feelings
about government that can stymie officials once they are elected.
Campaigns, therefore, do not confer any special immunity from
principles just because they are particularly challenging arenas
in which to behave well. As Steve Johnson, character education
director at the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, puts it,
"We have to learn to deal with the times when it's hard
to be the kind of person we want to be."
What ethical dilemmas do campaigns present?
Most ethical dilemmas arising from political campaigns can
be grouped under two headings: Campaign communications (including
advertising) and campaign finance.
Campaign Communications
A crucial issue in this area is campaign advertising. Some
commentators have couched this in terms of positive and negative
campaigning, but these terms can be confusing. Not all positive
pieces are truthful and not all truthful pieces are positive.
It may be more useful to think in terms of ethical campaigning.
Ethical campaign ads are based on the candidate's qualifications
and positions. They are honest and respectful of the opponent's
point of view.
To advocate for such campaigning is not to argue that candidates
must always say nice things about each other. Certainly, a candidate's
record, whether in public office or in other occupations, is
fair game. Indeed, ads that contrast the positions or voting
records or endorsements of candidates can help voters make informed
decisions. These ads are perfectly acceptable as long as they
remain respectful, fair, relevant, and truthful. Such ad campaigns
must be distinguished from unfair attacks or "hit pieces."
An ad campaign would be unethical if it relied on name-calling,
innuendo, or stereotyping. Attack ads, even those that may be
truthful, can be problematic when released late in a campaign
so that the opponent has an insufficient chance to respond.
Does the opponent's private life come within the limits of
ethical campaigning? That depends on its relevance to the job,
which can be debatable. For example, some voters think a candidate's
marital fidelity is relevant, revealing important information
about the person's integrity. Others argue that it is not germane
to public business. Another question in this regard is a "statute
of limitations" on youthful indiscretion. To illustrate,
some argue that teenage marijuana use does not reflect at all
on the mature behavior of a 50-year-old running for city council.
But what about youthful membership in the Ku Klux Klan or the
Weather Underground?
Just as candidates may suffer by association with such groups,
people running for office will want to associate themselves
with more popular civic organizations. Of course, candidates
are free to seek and publicize endorsement by these groups.
But candidates should take care not to imply endorsement where
none exists. They should not use tactics such as creating campaign
brochures with photos of people who have not endorsed them or
selectively-and deceptively-quoting from articles that may otherwise
have been critical.
Candidates should also try in so far as possible to take responsibility
for independent groups making representations on their behalf.
If such a party is disseminating false information, it is not
enough for the politician to say, "They're not part of
my campaign."
Campaign Finance
The many proposals for campaign finance reform all have an ethical
subtext: They seek to make campaigns-and the government produced
by those campaigns-more fair. Here's how that may play out:
Access: In a democracy, each person is supposed to count
equally. The wealthy should not be able to purchase more access
to politicians through big campaign contributions. Laws governing
campaign finance are meant to prevent such inequities and should
be respected-not only in letter but also in spirit. Donations
from people asking for a quid pro quo should be returned.
Integrity: Campaign funds must be fully accounted for
and not used for personal expenses such as vacations or trinkets.
The financing of the campaign should be transparent. Candidates
should be scrupulous in identifying as campaign expenses public
relations efforts such as goodwill ads, dinners, etc. Significant
in-kind contributions-food for a large rally, for example-should
be noted. Candidates should not accept contributions from people
or groups whose views or actions they would otherwise find unacceptable;
depending on the candidate that might include businesses such
as tobacco or pornography.
Freedom of Choice: Everyone should have the right to
support the candidate of his or her choice. No candidate should
coerce employees or others to work on his or her behalf. Candidates
who are already officeholders should not use any public resources
on their campaigns including staff, materials, phones, or facilities.
Resources on Campaign Ethics
Cases About Campaign Ethics
Articles
About Government Ethics on This Web Site
Articles
About Ethical Decision Making on This Web Site
Links
to Other Sites About Campaign Ethics
Introduction
to Government Ethics Homepage
May 2006
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