Santa Clara University

Fall Convocation 1998

Cultural Understanding in Jesuit Education:A Pedagogy of Engagement University Convocation

September 18, 1998

Paul Locatelli, S.J.

Introduction

Today I want to continue the conversation of last year's Convocation on the theme of integrated education, which is our second strategic initiative guiding University planning and decision-making.

On the edge of the twenty-first century we have set a high standard for ourselves: we want to help our students make connections among different forms of knowledge, understanding and experience...and to relate what they learn to how they live.⁽¹⁾ That is the challenge of integrated education.

One key way of connecting knowledge and life is engaging people from different cultures.⁽²⁾ In the right context, this connecting will help us understand how quality and diversity simultaneously enrich the community of scholars.⁽³⁾ Later I will discuss one pedagogy -- commonly called "service-learning" -- that seems to offer one promising way to help students integrate their education and their life.

In the movie, Good Will Hunting, making connections between knowledge and life is one of its most important points. Will Hunting is a 20 year old janitor at M.I.T. He is clever, a well-read genius but crude and deeply troubled. A drinker and brawler from South Boston, he runs with a group of dead-end kids. No one can get through to Will. He has the answer for everything, but he has neither the ears nor the heart to hear what others have to say.

When he cannot talk his way out of a pending jail sentence, a mathematics professor becomes his conservator and gets him to Sean, a counselor and psychology professor. Their first meeting is in Sean's office. The brash Will analyzes a painting by Sean and says it is awful. He belittles and scoffs at Sean, calling him an emotional and intellectual cripple. Sean boots him out.

For their second meeting, Sean takes him to a quiet park. As they sit on a bench overlooking a pond with swans, Will begins sarcastically:

"So what's this place? You have a swan fetish? Is this something you'd like to talk about?"

Sean calmly says: "I was thinking about what you said to me the other day, about my painting. I stayed up half the night thinking about it, then something occurred to me and I fell into a deep, peaceful sleep..... You've never been out of Boston."

Will: "Nope."

Paraphrasing Sean: "So, if I asked you about art you could give me the skinny on every art book ever written. Michelangelo? You know a lot about him I bet. Life's work, criticisms, political aspirations. But you couldn't tell me what it smells like in the Sistine Chapel. You've never stood there and looked up at the beautiful ceiling." And he goes on - "If I asked you about love, you'd give me a sonnet - but you've never really loved. If I asked you about war, you could quote every novel and non-fiction work ever written about war, but you've never been there. If I asked you about dying, you would say a lot, but could not tell me much because you have never experienced holding someone's hand while they were dying of cancer."

Sean is trying to wake Will up. His voracious reading, his accumulation of knowledge has not made him more humane. For all his genius and extraordinary knowledge, he has no empathy, no linkage to other people. Lacking understanding of himself and others, he is miserable and a miserable failure in human relationships; his life has little meaning.

The Jesuit scholar, Michael J. Buckley, captures well the core of humane education - the absolute need to engage the world with our knowledge. I paraphrase:

"Even if your students do depart with such a sensitive development that they can appreciate the depth of human life reflected in poetry or in history or in beautifully and carefully crafted argumentation, what will they become? They have been touched by some of the greatest achievements in human culture .... but have your students become humane?"⁽⁴⁾

That is the central question of Jesuit education: do our students become more humane, or not? Engage life, or not? Work to transform the world, or not? Or, are they content to be spectators? Does a Santa Clara education fire both their minds and hearts?

Will Hunting uses his natural intelligence and knowledge to keep life at a distance. His life on the streets is raucous but empty of meaning, since he would rather read about humanity than become engaged with it. Will has not integrated anything; he has intellectual competence but without conscience or compassion.

I. The Challenge of Integrated Education

Five hundred years ago, another young man, in his own words, was "given over to the vanities of the world."⁽⁵⁾ He also was hunting for his path in life. Over a course of twenty years he moved from courtier and soldier to wandering preacher and temporary prison guest of the Inquisition. At 31, he went back to grammar school to learn Latin so that he could qualify for the university, and eventually he got his degree from the University of Paris. He and six fellow students in theology and the humanities at Paris founded the Society of Jesus.

The pedagogy of the early Jesuits expressed Ignatius' own spirit. Extremely intelligent and university educated, Ignatius connected spirituality with the world.⁽⁶⁾ His most famous writings are eminently practical and experiential: the Spiritual Exercises are about learning to make life choices.⁽⁷⁾ People learn to find God in the thick of things, not retreating to monastic solitude. He believed passionately that God would be glorified by making the world more humane.

To this day, Jesuits and their colleagues want to educate the whole person because the ideal is to integrate faith and reason, mind and body, intellect and culture. They find God in combating ignorance and confronting injustice, in preaching the Word and writing scholarly articles, in debating the comparative merits of political systems and visiting the sick. This spirituality of engagement demands a pedagogy of engagement: students should actively participate in the learning process and learn to engage the problems and potential of this world.

In earlier times, students at Jesuit colleges were expected to show what they had learned by holding disputations in philosophy and theology, reciting their own poetry, engaging in debates, and performing plays and ballets.

These were appropriate ways for engaging the world of the Renaissance, but what are the appropriate ways to engage our vastly different world? What pedagogy will help our students integrate learning and life for the century that begins 469 days from today?

Let us reflect a bit on the new challenges of integrated education that face students, staff, and faculty

II. Integration in a World of Colliding Cultures

When I think about integrated education, I am struck by how much more our students have to integrate than my generation did. When I came to Santa Clara in the late fifties, it was a simpler world. "Diversity" was not part of our vocabulary or in our campus culture.

There were few voices on campus to challenge our assumptions about who we were or where we were going. We tried to understand this American culture by studying history, philosophy and some of the literature of other western cultures, but in many ways those studies reinforced our perspective rather than challenging it. Following the Second Vatican Council and the Vietnam War, our world changed and it has kept on changing.

Today, California is one of the most ethnically diverse places on the face of the earth. Historic levels of immigration have led to a remarkably multicultural California. Our student body reflects the region's profile. Over forty percent of our undergraduate student body and a similar percentage of our graduate students come from ethnic groups that are numerically minorities. And, if we reflect California in 2010, we will no longer have a "majority" on campus.

There is no longer a single culture on campus. The admission of women in 1961 transformed Santa Clara for the better. In the '90s the emergence of racial, ethnic, and economic diversity is causing a similar transformation -- again for the better. I mention economic diversity because race and ethnicity are not the only factors in our mix of cultures.

Students from the same ethnic background may not share common experiences because they come from different socio-economic classes. Imagine the gulf between Will Hunting and most of the students at MIT where Will was a janitor. For us, a White or Latino student who grew up in Beverly Hills may have little in common with a White or Latino classmate who grew up in the Central Valley. For students of color, when differences of racial culture and economic class combine, these students are doubly marginalized

Historically, Jesuit Colleges in the United States prepared the sons of immigrants to join the middle class. They succeeded in teaching the skills and discipline needed to have successful careers. Santa Clara, however, does not seek to homogenize our students' diverse backgrounds so that they will all fit comfortably into the middle class and the professions. Nor do we want to prepare them for a pluralism that is tolerant but unengaged with other cultures. We do not need a tolerant pluralism that is the cultural equivalent of gated communities

During the riots in Los Angeles that followed the Rodney King verdict, the executive committee of the National Conference of Christians and Jews called a diverse group of people together. Our task was to see how our own communities should respond. One resident from an exclusive neighborhood finally admitted that many of his neighbors were unconcerned whether the riots spread to San Jose; they felt safe and would not be touched by any violence. That is a sad commentary on the growing class or cultural gap in the U.S.

Contrast that reaction with the words of one of our own students, a young woman who sees the bigger picture in Silicon Valley. She wrote recently

I am a child of immigrants. My parents arrived in this country in 1970, freshly married, barely able to speak English, and suddenly separated from their families and networks of support.

The reality is that in the United States . . . we are all immigrants . . . It is just the luck of the draw . . . whether we happen to be on the side of the powerful or on the side of the weak when we take our place on the American timeline. In light of this, who are we to treat others as outsiders, unwanted and worthy of hardship and neglect?

This student has had her eyes opened, even if she may not have the answers to the problems on both sides of Silicon Valley. She is not hiding in the shelter of a gated community or like Will Hunting in a gated heart and mind. She is engaged in trying to make her own contribution

The new cultural realities of our campus call for a different kind of pedagogy. We have come to realize that what we see depends upon where we stand and who we listen to. That does not mean relativism, but it does mean a new modesty about our assumptions and a new openness to groups and perspectives other than our own

We need to develop pedagogies and scholarly evidence that will help us all learn from each others' cultures. Let us admit how challenging this can be for faculty and staff, for you and for me, as well as for our students. Perhaps, some of you know that for the past two years students have invited me to "fire-side" chats two or three times each quarter. The only consistent concern from students of every ethnic background has been about diversity: the first is not enough diversity, especially among the faculty, despite all of our efforts. And, the second is about climate exemplified by an insensitivity toward people from different ethnic and economic backgrounds. This is seen as a lack of appreciation for people, not only their backgrounds.

Many of us -- myself included -- not only have to stretch to understand people from other cultures, we also have to recognize the limits of our own cultural perspective. When we engage people from another culture at a significant level, beyond mere conversation, it calls into question our own assumptions and certainties. Often this makes us uncomfortable - we are out of our element. But our ways of doing things are not the only ways, and may not be the best ways, either.⁽⁸⁾

A pedagogy of engaging other cultures is a challenging process. Its method is dialogue. What does dialogue mean in this context?

Dialogue happens among people: it is not a one-sided oration or even casual conversation. To dialogue we have to become engaged with particular people whose lives are shaped by specific problems and opportunities. When we dialogue we are not talking about problems, we are talking with specific people. Dialogue forces us to put a human face on the problems of our times. It also requires that we engage in the conversation with a conscious awareness of our own particular heritage and social location, combined with a willingness to learn and change attitudes and behavior

We see a hint of this in Good Will Hunting. Initially, the "cultural" gap created a wall between the brilliant south Boston kid and the college professor. A wall that crumbles only with face-to-face, humane dialogue. In many ways this is the challenge we all face -- of engaging our students, touching their minds and their hearts. As you well know, this is not a simple task. Dialogue, therefore, is the core of a pedagogy of engagement. It is the primary method for collaboration and the discovery of truth for society and culture, as well as for personal understanding.

As a university, we must believe that truth and knowledge will be discovered in dialogue. Dialogue leads to finding new ways of thinking by reflectively engaging people of different cultures. While serious inquiry into today's problems leads people of good will to different strategies and solutions, dialogue is needed to find the common ground and ideals. Dialogue's exploration must begin with an intellectual multi-disciplinary analysis, but it must ultimately move us to constructive action. If not, it is like a chat-room on the internet. It's not real dialogue.

III: Rationale for Cultural-based Learning in Jesuit Education

This brings us to my final question: What pedagogies can contribute to help us engage our students, ourselves and other cultures -- to make connections between knowledge, understanding and experience ... to relate what we learn to how we live?⁽⁹⁾

Does the pedagogy of engagement - in other words - knowledge that emerges from experience - make learning overly pragmatic or too political? Some educators are convinced that real learning occurs only in the classroom and library. Mortimer Adler once asserted: "The heart of the matter (teaching and learning) is the quality of the learning that goes on during the hours spent in class and during the time spent doing assigned homework."⁽¹⁰⁾ While we need Adler's voice in the dialogue, he seems to confine his sources of legitimate knowledge to a comparatively restricted set of books and ideas.

Without diminishing the importance of classroom, lab and library, we know that learning also takes place outside of them. Knowledge exists in the community as well as in the university. And, learning from the community is one way to understand the term, service-learning. I don't like the term - "service-learning." Many use it too loosely. It means too many different things to different people. It fails to capture the intellectual development in the education of the whole person. It fails to acknowledge the locus of knowledge in the community and the learning from and with members of the community.

Some are already using a better term: "community-based learning."⁽¹¹⁾ As you can predict from what has been said about culture and dialogue, I would prefer to call this "cultural learning" or "cultural understanding" because we are learning from and with people in different cultures and classes as well as our own.

There is an example of cultural learning in which many of you have participated. Over the past ten years, the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics has sponsored more than a hundred faculty, staff and students to participate in delegations which have engaged other cultures in our hemisphere. They went to El Salvador, Haiti, Mexico and Guatemala. Through dialogue with people in these countries, with the poor and the powerful, they have probably experienced a good deal of culture shock. These trips were also experiments in engagement that opened up their own cultural assumptions as they learned from campesinos and finca owners, church workers, labor leaders, government authorities, and university scholars. When these faculty and staff returned to the United States and to campus, they saw this culture with new eyes. Many have testified how these experiences have been used to improve their teaching and research, their relations with students and colleagues here at Santa Clara.

These delegations, by and large, have been successful experiments in learning about self and different cultures. We also have many opportunities - limited only by our imagination - for learning with people from different cultural, racial and economic backgrounds within the Silicon Valley and on campus as well as open up opportunities for communities to learn how to become more liveable and humane. One of our challenges is to believe we can learn from and with them. As you will see from my closing remarks, there are many more opportunities for cultural learning, one of which is the courses in the East Side Project.

Since service-learning is the term being used, I will use it, as I offer some background on what it entails. As a specific pedagogy, it was first described by scholars in the late 1970s - so it is a relatively new term in higher education. Increasingly in this decade, types of "service-learning" programs and courses are being developed at many colleges and universities in the country. At their retreat on Wednesday, the School of Business faculty saw a partial list of institutions-- including prominent research universities -- with service-learning centers. Given our distinctive heritage and identity and our quest to offer the best integrated education possible, the pedagogy of learning from and in cultures is a natural for Santa Clara.

Today service-learning has come to mean an academic pursuit that integrates community experience with structured academic reflection. One scholar defines it -- and I paraphrase - as "a credit-bearing educational experience in which students participate in an organized service activity that meets identified community needs."

And, students in these programs learn to "reflect on the service activity in such a way as to gain further understanding of the course content, a broader appreciation of the discipline, and an enhanced sense of civic responsibility."⁽¹²⁾

This definition distinguishes service-learning from three other worthy but different activities. First, service-learning is not volunteerism or community service. Even though such activities can have a positive effect on learning, they do not require either a clearly articulated academic foundation or structured reflection on the experience. SCCAP and Habitat for Humanity are excellent examples in the community service category.

Service-learning is also not the same as an internship or practicum. These apply skills already learned in the classroom or lab to a practical situation. For example, when accounting students help a homeless center set up its budget, they are applying their skills in an admirable way and certainly helping the community. The question is whether this is an opportunity to learn more. How much richer would the experience be if it helped students understand directly that some problems are systemic and not the fault of all homeless people. Armed with this knowledge, our graduates would be better prepared to be voices of reason, conscience and compassion in society.⁽¹³⁾

This happens with our East San Jose Law Center -- a genuine service-learning project. Students have the opportunity to develop their legal skills and also to learn something from members of the community. While their clients and the community learn to live better, students learn about the socio-economic realities within our communities and the political realities that tend to exclude some classes from our legal system and from participation in the local and larger community. One student wrote: Of all the experiences I have had in my three years of law school, my time at East San Jose has been the most rewarding experience... It has changed my life and how I view people... I am confident that I will be a better, more sensitive lawyer because of my experience at East San Jose.

Finally, it should be distinguished from research projects that analyze the complex causes of social marginalization, immigration, or the growing income disparity in this valley. While serious research is an essential part of the university mission, it can focus on the people in underserved communities without entering into dialogue with them. As such, it can lack the spark of personal engagement that would cause the researchers to examine their own assumptions, attitudes and behavior.⁽¹⁴⁾

By contrast, service-learning seeks to integrate theory and practice, mutually enhancing both. It connects learning with living, learning with civic responsibility and from the community, learning to learn with learning to live.

Integrating critical thinking with personal engagement challenges the illusions of privilege and individualism. It makes learning come alive for students as they learn to believe that they can make a difference in their world. It fulfills academic goals like mastery of communication and analytical skills, building knowledge and cross-disciplinary understanding. Finally, it holds the promise of systemic change in society that improves the lives of people in communities; ideally, it provides them with the means to create a new life.

Turning to the growing body of research and evidence, community-based learning is being recognized as a major contributor to learning quality. I'm drawing from some empirical research by Janet Eyler and Dwight Giles of Vanderbilt University and others researchers on the effects of service-learning.

In examining the impact of service-learning in liberal arts courses at 20 colleges, they "found that those who participated in service-learning showed significant increases in," for example, the ability to identify social issues, a sense of connection to the community, openness to other points of view, commitment to social justice, and perception that problems are systemic rather than the fault of individuals who suffer from the problems.

Another study compared classes without service to "classes where the service was central to classroom activities." Students with service experience reported "that the class was higher in quality . . . were motivated to work harder . . . and were more intellectually stimulated. [And, w]hen students made oral presentations that linked theory to their practice, this also led to higher quality learning and intellectual stimulation."

Other studies tracked students over a two-year period and "found that students in the integrated service-learning program increased in international understanding and civic responsibility and decreased in racial prejudice..." Comparable changes did not occur in courses without community engagement or in community service programs without academic reflection.

Another researcher found that students in ethics classes with service showed significant increases in moral reasoning compared to those in non-service classes.⁽¹⁵⁾

Many of these findings point to the value and the promise for the Jesuit aim of educating the whole person: to educate intelligent and ethical leaders who are capable of influencing the social, political and cultural environment in which they live.⁽¹⁶⁾

Unfortunately, not enough research has been done on the impact of these courses on the faculty. The students are not the only ones changed by engaging another culture. Our faculty and staff who have experienced other cultures in Mexico and Central America or within the United States, as well as faculty whose expertise is in another culture, bring new questions and new outlooks to their classes and work.

I hope all of us will engage realities other than our own. I suggest that -- whether we are coaches, librarians, campus ministers, administrators and staff, or faculty -- we can all look at where we stand and who we listen to because that determines what we see. We can look at what we do in our work and how we relate with others as we ask of ourselves: are we open to learning from and with others? To developing our courses with new eyes, new questions? To having empathy for someone from a different ethnic, racial or economic background?

Sean helps Will look at himself and the world differently, and during the dialogue Will begins to look at life differently as well. We have similar opportunities with our students. Will it be easy? No.

We may have to look at the way we promote a culture of service⁽¹⁷⁾ in our jobs or to keep reformulating the questions and materials in our syllabi more than we usually do. If students become overwhelmed by other cultures and want to retreat into the safety of homogeneity, we will need to address that as well. Still our students already live in a pluralistic society, and it is shaping them daily. We may be able to learn from them.

Reflectively engaging other cultures on and off the campus is a necessary part of a truly integrated education. The pedagogy of cultural learning can help us capitalize on the rich diversity we already have on this campus. Racial, ethnic, and economic diversity does not have to lead to defensiveness and exclusivity. With creative pedagogy, this diversity can be the source of genuine dialogue among students, staff and faculty. All this could lead to an integrated and richer education, one that is appropriate to our world of many cultures.

Conclusion

Many of you are already advancing our strategic initiative on integrated education by helping our students make connections....and relate what they learn to how they live. While I have focused primarily on cultural learning, other opportunities involving moral reasoning, technological innovations, artistic performances, mirror learning by engagement that was expected of Jesuit educated students of earlier times. Let me cite just a few contemporary examples:

These are a few prime examples of the numerous opportunities for new ways of learning, if we would only use our imagination.

Over the past three Convocations I have spoken with you about major priorities of the Strategic Plan, especially integrated education and forming a community of scholars. Before concluding, I'd like to announce ten appointments to professorships - these faculty are "teaching scholars" who enrich the community of scholars.

My congratulations to all of the new chair holders.

I am grateful to all the people who participated in creating and implementing the Strategic Plan. I have talked about the Plan because you need to know that it is not just a set of slogans and buzz words. It is about charting the direction for Santa Clara in the years ahead. It also makes the University accountable to its many publics. Together we must hold ourselves to the vision. We must help each other make decisions that translate priorities into specific programs and actions.

Thank you and have a great year.

Conv98-9-18-Fin

Notes:

1. Santa Clara University: Strategic Plan 1998, Initiative 2., p. 7: "Providing an Integrated Education. We will foster the education of the whole person in a learning environment that enables students to make connections among different forms of knowledge, understanding, and experience."

2. "Culture" is defined as: (a) the total pattern of human behavior and its products embodied in thought, speech, action, and artifacts and dependent upon man's capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations through the use of tools, language, and systems of abstract thought; (b) the body of customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits constituting a distinct complex of tradition of a racial, religious, or social group.

"Class" is defined as: one group of a usual society-wide grouping of people according to social status, political or economic similarities, or interests or ways of life in common. [Oxford Dictionary]

Another definition of "culture" is: "the way in which a group of people live, think, feel, organize themselves, celebrate, and share life. In every culture, there are underlying systems of values, meanings, and views of the world, which are expressed, visibly, in language, gestures, symbols, rituals, and styles." Documents of the Thirty-Fourth General Congregation of the Society of Jesus, "Decree Four, Our Mission and Culture." (St. Louis, The Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1995), p. 49.

See also Robert N. Bellah, et al, Habits of the Heart (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1985) p. 275ff. Robert N. Bellah, et al, The Good Society (New York: Vintage Books of Random House: 199) p. 304ff. Robert N. Bellah "Is There a Common American Culture?" Journal of the American Academy of Religion, (November 1997), #66/3, p. 613.

3. Santa Clara University: Strategic Plan 1998, Initiative 1. p. 5: This is a key dimension of "Building a Community of Scholars. We will foster a vital community of scholars whose embers collaborate as partners in learning and scholarship."

4. Michael J. Buckley, S.J., "The University and Concern for Justice: The Search for a New Humanism." Thought 57 (June 1982): 219-233. Similar ideas can be found in, "The Search for a New Humanism: The University and the Concern for Justice." Chapter six in a forthcoming book by Georgetown University Press. The book is scheduled for late Fall, 1998.

5. St. Ignatius' Own Story As Told to Luis González de Cámara. Translated by William J. Young, S.J. (Chicago, Loyola University Press, 1980), p. 7.

6. Very Rev. Peter-Hans Kolvenbach, S.J., "Ignatian Pedagogy Today." From an address on "Ignatian Pedagogy: A Practical Approach," Villa Cavalleti, April 29, 1993. In Jesuits Magazine, January 1994, p. 1.

7. George E. Ganss, S.J., ed., Ignatius of Loyola: Spiritual Exercises and Selected Works. (New Jersey: Paulist Press, 1991), p. 113f.

8. Learning from other cultures is different from the academic innovations of the sixties and seventies. Then the criterion was "relevance" - how could faculty make their courses relevant to the concerns of students? However, the pursuit of relevance was often not self-critical. Relevance presumed a set of assumptions that were unquestioned. The quest for relevance was often based on a market approach to education: the customer always knows best. That was a flawed extreme, but now we must be careful not to go to the opposite extreme.

9. Santa Clara University: Strategic Plan 1998, p. 8.

10. Mortimer J. Adler, The Paideia Proposal: An Educational Manifesto. (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1982), p. 49.

11. Ira Harkavy, Back to the Future: From Service-Learning to Strategic, Academically-Based Community Service. (Metropolitan Universities, Summer 1996), Volume 7, Number 1, p. 69. The author argues key goals of community-based learning are: "(T)o create a better city and society through advancing and transmitting knowledge. Even with its limitations, their model was essentially one of strategic, academically-based community service, integrating research, teaching, faculty service and student service-learning, and attempting to make fundamental improvement in the lives of people and their communities. That model, I believe, can inspire America's urban universities to function as Deweyan learning organizations that help solve the strategic intellectual and societal problem of creating and maintaining attractive, highly livable, humane cities that will be centers of learning and progress in the 21^st century."

12. R.G. Bringle and J.A. Hatcher, "Implementing service-learning in higher education." Journal of Higher Education, 67 (2), 221-239. In Edward Zlotkowski (ed.) Successful Service-Learning Programs: New Models of Excellence in Higher Education. Edited by. (Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing Company, Inc., 1998), Preface (xiv).

Other definitions include:

Eyler and Giles argue that John Dewey's theory of reflection and experience is useful for undertaking service-learning research. His four criteria that were necessary for effective education are: 1. Must generate interest; 2. Must be worthwhile intrinsically; 3. Must present problems that awaken new curiosity and create a demand for education; 4. Must cover a considerable time span and be capable of fostering development over time. (Eyler & Giles in Waterman, p. 59)

Some other books on service-learning:

Alan S. Waterman (ed) Service-Learning: Applications from the Research (New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997)

D.V. Rama. (ed) Learning by Doing: Concepts and Models for Service-Learning in Accounting (Washington, DC: AAHE in cooperation with KPMG, 1998).

Barbara Jacoby and Associates, Service-Learning in Higher Education: Concepts and Practices (San Francisco, Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1996).

13. Zlotkowski, ibid. p. xiv. Also, Janet Eyler, Dwight E. Giles, Jr., and John Braxton, "The Impact of Service-Learning on College Students." Michigan Journal of Community Service-Learning, (Fall 1997), volume 4, p. 5.

14. Scholarship and research are central and essential to the life of a university - to the quality of teaching and to creating, discovering and communicating knowledge. Participatory Research acknowledges a broader locus of knowledge than with a researcher or within a university community, namely the broader community has and produces knowledge as well. This does not diminish the importance of traditional research as currently understood. Rather Participatory Research expands the importance of research in understanding and solving problems. Gaventa, John. Participatory Research in North America, (Convergence, Highlander Research and Education Center, 1988) Vol. XXI, Number 2/3. The conclusion states: "The believer in popular participation must hope that the vision and view of the world that is produced by the many in their interests will be more humane, rational and liberating than the dominating knowledge of today." p. 26.

The thesis comes from Paulo Freire - Creating Alternative Research Methods: Learning to Do it By Doing It," in Budd Hall, Arthur Gillette and Rajest Tandon, Creating Knowledge: a Monopoly, (New Delhi: Society for Participatory Research, 1982), p. 58. - who wrote: "If I perceive the reality as the dialectical relationship between subject and object, then I have to use methods of investigation which involve the people of the area being studied as researchers; they should take part in the investigation themselves and not serve as the passive objects of the study."

15. Janet Eyler and Dwight Giles, Jr., The Importance of Program Quality in Service-Learning. In Alan Waterman (ed.), ibid. p. 64-65.

16. Francesco C. Cesareo, "Quest for Identity: The Ideals of Jesuit Education in the Sixteenth Century," The Jesuit Tradition in Education and Missions: A 450-Year Perspective. Edited by Christopher Chapple. (Scranton, University of Scranton Press, 1993), p. 20.

17. Santa Clara University, Guiding Principle #7.